Marijuana and Hashish
(Ch. 17)

• MARIJUANA, FROM THE CANNABIS PLANT, HAS HAD A LONG AND VARIED HISTORY
• Marijuana can produce some sedative-like effects, some pain relief, and, in large doses, hallucinogenic effects
• Marijuana is a preparation of leafy material from the three separate species of the Cannabis plant that is used for smoking: C. sativa (known for its fibers), C. indica, and C. ruderalis (grown primarily in Russia). C. indica plants cultivated for their psychoactive effects are more compact and usually grow only two or three feet tall. The pscychoactive potency results from an interaction between genetics and environmental conditions. Plants of different species grown under identical conditions produce different amounts of psychoactive material, and the same plants will vary in potency from year to year, depending on the amount of sunshine, warm weather, and moisture
• The primary psychoactive agent is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) - which is concentrated in the resin of the plant; most of the resin is in the flowering tops, less in the leaves, and there is little in the fibrous stalks.
• The psychoactive potency of a cannabis preparation depends upon the amount of resin present and therefore varies, depending on the part of the plant used. There are various preparations (first produced in India and) readily available in the US:
• the most potent of these is charas, which consist of pure resin that has been carefully removed from the surface of leaves and stems;
• hashish is a substance widely known around the world and in its purest form is pure resin. Samples of hashish in the US vary widely in their THC content, averaging about 7-8%, and ranging up to about 14% THC;
• ganga consists of dried flowering tops of plants with pistillate flowers (female plants). The male plants are removed from the fields before the female plants can become pollinated and put their energy into seed production; this increases the potency of the female plants
• sinsemilla is the US version of ganga. This method of production has become increasingly popular with US producers. The flowering top portion of the plant is referred to as the "bud." Sinsemilla samples from the US also vary widely in THC content, averaging around 4-5%
• bhang is the weakest form. it is made by using the entire remainder of the plant after the top has been picked, drying it and grinding it into a powder
• The marijuana that is available in the US rages from a low-grade product containing ~1% THC to a high-grade sinsemilla containing 8% or more THC. The usual range of potency is ~ 2-5%
• In the 1970s, domestic marijuana was typically inexpensive, low-grade sativa leaves, and higher grade marijuana was usually imported from Mexico or Columbia.
• Today, the most potent, and most expensive, marijuana comes from American growers (because of hydroponics, genetics and other technological advances). Marijuana is now considered to be by far America's number one cash crop, earning ~ $30 billion per year
• Beginning in the 1930s, associations were made between marijuana use and crime and violence - namely as a result of activities instigated by the Commissioner of Narcotics, Harry Anslinger (and the pyramid of justice schemes, p.407)
• During the 1930s laws went into effect to reduce the use of marijuana. The Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 (one was supposed to register and pay a tax to legally import, buy, or sell marijuana - and was hereafter referred to as a narcotic). The result was a drop in heinous crime and an increase in price of marijuana. In 1969, the US Supreme Court declared the Marijuana Tax Act unconstitutional.
• Studies beginning in the 1940s renounced earlier connections to violent crimes (mayor LaGuardia's request to the New York Academy of Medicine being the first)
• IT CANNOT CONCLUSIVELY BE CLAIMED THAT MARIJUANA USE IS WITHOUT DANGER

• There are over 400 different chemicals in marijuana, but only 61 of them are unique to the Cannabis plant - these are called cannabinoids - one of them is THC, which was isolated and synthesized in 1964
• THC is absorbed quickly and stored in tissues, taking up to 30 days to be eliminated, thus it can have long lasting effects. After one week, 25-30% of the THC and its metabolites (primarily 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC) might still remain in the body. The high lipid solubility of THC means that it is selectively taken up and stored in the fatty tissues to be released slowly
• In 1992, anandamide was discovered, This chemical has natural marijuana-like effects in brain tissue (therefore, a receptor was identified)
• THC has several effects physiological effects that are dose-related, such as dryness of mouth and throat, reddening of the eyes, and an increase in pulse rate
• The behavioral effects of THC are learned - as a result, first time users do not achieve the euphoric "stoned" or "high" condition of a repeated user. Therefore, experienced smokers show more effect than beginning smokers
• To some degree it is learned behavior, and experienced users react to placebo cigarettes. The placebo cigarette would illicit the feelings associated with (and conditioned to) the use of marijuana, but the physiological effects do not occur
• If high levels of marijuana are used regularly over a sustained period of time, tolerance will be obvious
• Physical dependence has been demonstrated - irritability, restlessness, nausea, and vomiting. In laboratory experiments, these symptoms peaked at 8 hours and declined over the next three days
• One of the consistent effects is on short-term memory - tasks such as learning and remembering new information; and "tracking" behavior are effected - tracking behavior requires sustained attention
• It has been demonstrated that there is driving impairment associated with marijuana use
• A major behavioral problem associated with acute marijuana intoxication is the panic reaction
• There is evidence of diminishing motivation in chronic marijuana smokers

1. CANNABIS HAS BEEN USED MEDICALLY THROUGHOUT HISTORY

• A 1972 report showed that marijuana smoking was effective in reducing the fluid pressure of the eye in a glaucoma patient.
• A second important medical use was reported in 1975, that medication containing THC was the only kind that ws effective in reducing the severe nausea caused by certain drugs used to treat cancer
• In 1985, the FDA approved of the sale of dronabinol (the generic name; or Marinol, the brand name), THC in capsule form
• In addition, recent reports have shown marijuana can be beneficial as an anti-convulsant, in reducing tension headache and/or migraines

1. AMERICAN USE AND LAWS REGARDING MARIJUANA HAVE BEEN THROUGH SEVERAL STAGES

• In the 1960s, marijuana use was more accepted
• The 1970s saw laws becoming more lenient about marijuana use
• In November 1996, both Arizona and California voters passed ballot initiatives allowing physicians to recommend marijuana for serious illnesses, and allowing patients to possess and use marijuana if their physician recommended it. There was still no legal way for patients to purchase marijuana, or no legal growers or distributors
• Although marijuana is not used by most Americans, it is remarkable how many people have used and continue to use this substance and violate the laws regarding its use is a matter of concern
• It is easy to look back and wish that the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act had never happened. Marijuana use was spreading slowly across the US and with any luck it might have become acculturated. Society would have adapted to marijuana and adapted marijuana to society - just as it has happened before with coffee, tea, tobacco and alcohol. The 1937 law prevented all of that
• In June 1972 the AMA came out in favor of dropping penalties for possession of "insignificant amounts" of marijuana and noted that "there is no evidence supporting the idea that marijuana leads to violence, aggressive behavior, or crime.
• In August of 1972, the American Bar Association called for a reduction in criminal penalties for possession and a year later recommended decriminalization.
• On october 1973, Oregon abolished criminal penalties for marijuana use
• When the Reagan administration came into office in 1980, any hope for federal decriminalization was gone replaced by a "get tough" and "zero tolerance" philosophy and increasing our prison population (in some cases, longer prison sentences are given for selling marijuana than for murder)