Arizona Rape Prevention and Education Project -- Abstracts N to Z

Arizona Rape Prevention and Education Project -- University of Arizona Department of Public Health

Research Abstracts N to Z

Note: Abstracts are arranged alphabetically on 4 pages. You may go directly to the other pages if you wish. Abstracts are broken down by: A to C D to G H to M and N to Z.

National Victims Center. (1992, April 23). Rape In America: A report to the nation. Arlington, VA

This report provides empirical data about the forcible rape in America. The questions addressed include: What is forcible rape? How much rape is there in the United States? What are rape victims' key concerns? How many rapes are actually reported to police? Does media disclosure of rape victims' names affect such reporting? What has been the impact of recent high profile rape cases on reporting of rapes?
Note: A copy of this report can be obtained on the National Victim Center's homepage http://www.nvc.org/

Keywords: Prevalence, Statistics

Norris J., Nurius P. S., & Graham T. L. (1999). When a Date Changes From Fun to Dangerous: Factors Affecting Women's Ability to Distinguish. Violence Against Women, 5(3), 230-250.

The likelihood of acquaintance rape depends in part on women's abilities to perceive risks. In this study, the authors assessed relationships between women's recognition of known situational risk factors and global perceived risk; prior victimization; and drinking habits. Women consistently distinguished between clear and ambiguous situational risk factors. However, these were not related to perceived global risk. They also underestimated their own risk of being assaulted relative to the risk of other women being assaulted. Both prior victimization and drinking habits were related to risk judgments. This study raises issues concerning the development of effective defensive strategies for combating sexual assault.

Keywords: Alcohol, Avoidance/Resistance, Risk

Nurius, P. S. (2000). Risk perception for acquaintance sexual aggression: A social-cognitive perspective. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 5(1), 63-78.

The authors discuss the fact that beliefs about sources of harm and personal susceptibility to harm have been shown to play an important role in subsequent self-protection from harm. Women generally report low levels of perceived personal risk from acquaintances and are therefore ill-prepared to prevent threat from them. In order to change this situation, we need a better understanding of factors that shape perception of risk and how these factors are likely to negatively and positively influence women's risk reduction and self-protection. To this end, the authors, review recent literature on risk perception and identify relevant applications of theory and findings to women's perception of risk for sexual aggression by acquaintaces.

Keywords: Avoidance/Resistance, Risk, Theory

O'Donohue, W., Downs, K., & Yeater, E. A. (1998). Sexual harassment: A review of the literature. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 3(2), 111-128.

The authors review research on sexual harassment related to definitional, etiological, epidemiological, treatment, prevention issues and effects. The authors state that while there are many controversies concerning how sexual harassment is defined it is evident that there are subtypes of sexual harassment, including such as gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion. Existing research also indicates that women are frequently affected by sexual harassment and that verbal harassment is more common that nonverbal harassment. It is common for victims of sexual harassment to experience negative psychological, work related, and economic consequences. Suggestions for future research are offered.

Keywords: Effects, Harassment, Prevention

O'Keefe, M., Treister, L., (1998). Victims of Dating Violence Among High School Students: Are the Predictors Different for Males and Females? Violence Against Women, 4, 195-223.

This study examines whether predictors of dating violence differ for males and females. Predictors are grouped according to three categories: The sociodemographic category includes, ethnicity, and family SES. The contextual domain is comprised of distal predictors including experiencing physical aggression, accepting violence, inter-parental aggression, community and school violence, interpersonal control, and self esteem. Situational predictors are proximal and include relationship satisfaction, relationship seriousness, length of dating relationships, number of dating relationships, relationship conflict, and inflicting dating violence. Separate analyses are conducted for males and females. Results indicate different patterns of predictors for males and females, and that while both sexes report similar motivations for engaging in dating violence, males report initiating dating violence more frequently (if equal responsibility was not declared) Results also indicate that the effects of the violence are more severe for females.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Male-Female Relations, Perpetration

O'Sullivan, L. F., Byers, E. S., & Finkelman, L. (1998). A comparison of male and female college students' experiences of sexual coercion. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 177-195.

The current research focuses on the phenomenology of men and women's experience of sexual coercion. 433 college students, who responded to an anonymous survey, were randomly selected as participants. More men than women reported being sexually coercive in the preceding year. Many similarities were noted between men and women in the context in which the coercion took place. Women expressed greater resistance to sexual coercion than men and had stronger negative emotional reactions. These finding emphasize the need to reassess current approaches to interpreting prevalence of sexual coercion and direct attention to the circumstances surrounding sexual coercion. These findings also accentuate the need to educate both men and women about men and women's sexuality and sexual socialization.

Keywords: College, Male-Female Relations

Ouimette, P.C. (1997). Psychopathology and sexual aggression in nonincarcerated men. Violence & Victims, 12(4), 389-395.

The authors compare the psychopathological profiles of 47 rapists or would-be rapists to those of 56 sexually active but non-raping men. On the basis of the Sexual Experiences Survey (M. Koss and C. Gidycz, 1985), and structured clinical interviews, the sexually aggressive men reported a pattern of symptoms indicating impulse control problems. They had more conduct-disordered behavior in childhood, and abused alcohol and illicit drugs more than did the nonviolent men. These symptoms were clinically significant: a higher proportion of sexually aggressive men met criteria for child conduct disorder, and alcohol and drug abuse diagnoses than did nonviolent men. Sexually aggressive men also reported more personality disorder symptoms than nonviolent men, suggesting that they had less empathy, and were more self-centered and manipulative than nonviolent men. These findings suggest that undetected sexually violent men have fairly severe and long-standing problems with impulsivity. These results add to the growing literature on common factors in criminal and nonincarcerated samples.

Keywords: Perpetration

Paik, H., Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of Television Violence on Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis. Communication Research, 21(4), 516-546.

A quantitative collection of research findings and their subsequent interpretation of the influence of television violence and its link with aggressive, antisocial or delinquent behavior is the focus of this article. Included in this meta-analysis are both experimental studies and surveys. Internal validity of each study was assessed. This analysis aims to take advantage of recently developed techniques and the enlarged database and to give more emphasis to "real world violence" to show a causal relationship between violent television viewing and aggressive behavior. The findings show that all types of aggressive behavior have highly significant effect size associated with exposure to television.

Keywords: Risk

Palarea, R. E., Zona, M. A., Lane, J. C., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (1999). The dangerous nature of intimate relationship stalking: Threats, violence, and associated risk factors. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 17(3), 269-283.

The authors compared 135 intimate and 88 non-intimate stalking cases managed by the Los Angeles Police Department's Threat Management Unit. Results indicate a significant relationship between the stalkers' intimate status and violence committed toward persons and property. The relationship was positively influenced by the suspect's proximity to the victim and threats toward the victim and property, but was not influenced by suspect's criminal, psychiatric, and domestic violence history. Overall, intimate relationship stalkers used more dangerous stalking behaviors than non-intimate relationship stalkers. Risk factors for assessing dangerousness of stalkers are also discussed.

Keywords: Risk, Stalking

Parks, K. A., & Miller, B. A. (1997). Bar victimization of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 509-525.

This study provides a preliminary description of the types of violence experienced by women bar drinkers and the roles of exposure and impairment as risk factors for encountering bar-related aggression, an area of research that has been hitherto neglected. Data were collected from 52 women bar drinkers (mean age 31.9 yrs) through self-administered questionnaires and focus-group discussions about their lifestyles, alcohol and drug use, and patterns of bar drinking. Nearly half of the women (48.1%) had experienced physical violence (e.g., assault) and one-third (32.6%) had experienced either attempted or completed rape associated with drinking in a bar. The authors conclude that women who regularly drink in bars experience a substantial amount of physical and sexual aggression associated with these settings.

Keywords: Alcohol, Risk, Vulnerability

Parrot, A. (1989). Acquaintance Rape Among Adolescents: Identifying risk groups and intervention strategies. Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality, 8, 47-60.

This article discusses various dimensions of acquaintance rape in adolescent and young adult populations, including frequency, patterns of occurrence, characteristics of assailants, and behaviors that place adolescents at risk of becoming victims. The authors address the need for victim counseling and discuss appropriate advocacy roles for the social worker, police, medical professionals, and the victim's family and friends.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Risk

Parrot, A., Cummings, N., Marchell, T.C., Hofher, J., (1994). A rape awareness and prevention model for male athletes. Journal of American College Health

Sexual assault prevention programs on college campuses tend to focus on changing female rather than male behaviors, and are often not effective in preventing acquaintance rape. Educational efforts must be designed to overcome both men's and women's denial of the problem of rape, and must inform men about acceptable forms of sexual interaction. This article discusses a proactive, rape prevention program implemented with a university varsity football team. A framework for a rape awareness/prevention program that targets male college athletes is presented. The goals of rape prevention for male athletes must include educating students about the behaviors, risks and consequences of committing sexual assault. Education programs must also challenge attitudes that demean or objectify women, as well as messages of male domination as normative, which condone and perpetuate rape-prone environments. Rape prevention efforts should address interrelated issues such as relationship expectations, gender roles, power dynamics, communication, and alcohol and other drug use. The authors recommend the development of a sequential series of programs based on a 4-year cycle that introduces fundamental concepts surrounding the issue of sexual assault. Issues of moral development, attitudes and assumptions, including those towards sexual entitlement, are discussed. A specific format for this program is presented, including engaging techniques for facilitators.

Keywords: Athletes/Fraternaties, College, Curriculum, Prevention

Pathe, M., & Mullen, P. E. (1997). The impact of stalkers on their victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 12-17.

This study examines the findings of a study which questioned 100 victims of stalking regarding their psychological, social, and interpersonal functioning as well as their level of risk for physical and sexual assault. Most victims experienced multiple forms of harassment including being followed, repeatedly approached, and harassed either by mail or phone. Victims were stalked from 1 mo. to 20 yrs. 58 of those reporting stalking were threatened and 34 experienced physical or sexual assault. 94 victims made major changes in their work and social lives, including changing or ceasing employment (53%) and moving back home (39%) 83% of stalking victims reported increased anxiety, 55% experienced intrusive flashbacks, 37% met criteria for PTSD and 24% of victims acknowledged suicidal ideation Respondents also reported appetite disturbances, depressed mood, and nightmares. Results indicate that persistent stalking results in social and psychological harm to victims. The authors also discuss the inadequacy of medical and legal response.

Keywords: Effects, Harrassment, Stalking

Pinzone-Glover, H. A., Gidycz, C. A., & Jacobs, C.(1998). An acquaintance rape prevention program: Effects on attitudes toward women, rape-related attitudes, and perceptions of rape scenarios. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22(4), 605-621.

Investigated the effects of an acquaintance-rape prevention program on college students' attitudes toward rape and attitudes toward women, perceptions of acquaintance-rape scenarios, and rape empathy. 152 Ss were led to believe that they were participating in 2 separate experiments in order to decrease demand characteristics. Results indicate that intervention group men and women became more empathic toward the victim than the control group, post-intervention. Within the intervention group, men changed more in their attitudes toward women post-intervention than did women. In addition to positive attitude change, results with the date-rape scenarios suggested that intervention-group men became more certain of their definitions of rape situations post-intervention. Prior to the intervention, women were generally more certain of their definitions than were men, with intervention-group men approximating women's responses post-intervention.

Keywords: College, Male/Female Relations

Plater, M. A., & Thomas, R. E. (1998). The impact of job performance, gender, and ethnicity on the managerial review of sexual harassment allegations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 28(1), 52-70.

This study examines managerial reviews of sexual harassment allegations by subordinates against supervisors. 573 employees who attended a sexual harassment seminar examined a hypothetical vignette and answered questions. Participants were asked to decide whether the behavior in the vignette was appropriate And how responsible the company was for the situation. Reviewers decisions were found to be influenced in distinct ways by the genders and ethnicities of reviewer and scenario participants as well as the scenario participant's job performance. Male respondents exhibited bias in favor of high-performing same-ethnicity supervisors (a bias not found in female responses. Female and non-White reviewers assessed significantly higher levels of company responsibility than did male and White respondents. The data suggest that although men and women do not seem to differ substantially in terms of what constitutes misconduct, they do differ over the company's level of responsibility.

Keywords: Harassment

Pope, E.; Shouldice, M. (2001). Drugs and sexual assault: A review. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 2(1), 51-55.

National data reveals that in 75% of rape cases, the perpetrator is known to the victim. A growing number of rapes are associated with the use of drugs for its rapid action in inducing sedation and its ability to go undetected. Review of drugs currently used as date rape drugs namely rohypnol, GHB, ketamine, and ecstasy is provided. Due to its short half-life, detection during examination is very difficult. A review of methods of screening of these drugs is also provided. (posted 12/18/2002)

Keywords: Alcohol, Date Rape, Vulnerability

Potter, R.H., Krider, J. E., & McMahon P. M. (2000). Examining Elements of Campus Sexual Violence Policies: Is Deterrence or Health Promotion Favored? Violence Against Women, 6(12), 1345-1362.

The authors compare criminal justice and public health perspectives in order to understand sexual violence policies. The public health model focuses on prevention through health promotion, while the criminal justice model is based primarily on deterrence. Policies formulated under different theoretical persepctives are likely to have different implications and outcomes. This study focused on campus sexual violence policies from the two perspectives. Policies in a sample of 100 United States colleges and universities in 1998 were examined. The authors present a descriptive analysis of the types of sexual violence prevention programs and dissemination of knowledge about the policies, and then analyze the policy data utilizing content analytic techniques. They found that deterrence-based prevention efforts were most common, followed by risk- or opportunity-reduction approaches. The authors conclude by discussing the possible impact on campus sexual violence prevention efforts were the public health and criminal justice approaches merged.

Keywords: College, Prevention

Resick, P.A. (1993). The psychological impact of rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8(2), 223-255.

Reviews the literature on the psychological impact of rape on adult female victims. Typical patterns of recovery, types of symptoms, and variables affecting recovery are addressed. Among the problems discussed are fear and anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, poor self-esteem, social adjustment issues, and sexual dysfunctions. The moderating variables that are reviewed are pre-assault variables such as prior psychological functioning and life stressors; within-assault variables such as acquaintanceship status, level of violence, and within-crime victim reactions; and postassault variables such as social support and participation in the criminal justice system. The pattern of reactions emerging from the research indicates that rape is a life event that causes great upheaval in a victim's psychological functioning for a considerable period of time, perhaps for the victim's entire life.

Keywords: Survivors

Resnick, H.S., Kilpatrick, D.G., Walsh, C. & Veronen, L.J. (1991). Marital Rape. In Robert T. Ammerman & Michel Hersen (Eds.), Case Studies in family violence (pp. 329-355) New York, NY: Plenum Press.

This chapter reviews literature on the prevalence of marital rape and presents two case studies that examine medical, legal, family, and social issues to consider when working with victims. Behavioral approaches for the treatment of rape are discussed.

Keywords: Marital Rape

Rosen, L. N., & Martin, L. (1998). Predictors of tolerance of sexual harassment among male U.S. Army soldiers. Violence Against Women, 4(4), 491-504.

The tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army was examined in relation to three variables thought to be indicative of negative attitudes toward women. The first was a personality variable, negative masculinity, associated with aggressive characteristics; the second measured hostility toward women; the third measured the acceptance of women as men's equals in the Army. All three variables predicted tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army. Hostility toward women being the strongest predictor, followed by negative masculinity, and acceptance of women.

Keywords: Harassment, Risk, Underserved Populations

Rosenthal, E.H., Heesacker, M., & Neimeyer, G. J. (1995). Changing the rape-supportive attitudes of traditional and nontraditional male and female college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(2), 171-177.

The authors sought to determine if a psychoeducational intervention proven effective with less traditional individuals could also be used to influence rape-related attitudes of individuals possessing traditional sex role attitudes. Male and female undergraduates (N = 245) were classified on the basis of their sex role traditionality and either received the intervention or served as untreated controls. Multivariate ANOVA showed that intervention recipients were less adherent to rape myths and expressed less rape-supportive attitudes than did controls. Participants were subsequently contacted by phone in an appeal for women's safety projects that subjects thought was unrelated to the experiment. On one of the phone appeal measures, experimental participants' responses were significantly less rape-supportive than were control participants' responses.

Keywords: College, Myths/Stereotypes

Rozee, P. D. (1993). Forbidden or Forgiven? Rape in a cross-cultural perspective. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17.

This article presents a conceptual framework in order to study rape cross-culturally. The model considers non-normative rape, illicit uncondoned genital contact and normative rape, socially condoned rape, in a sample of 35 non-industrial societies. This study shows that if the occurrence of rape is focused on the female's choice rather than on the illicit societally prohibited rape, then a much different picture of rape cross-culturally is presented. The research implies that rape is clearly separate from female sexuality. The presence of both non-normative and normative rapes in the majority of societies depicts rape as regulated rather than prohibited. Societal views of rape in the United States are discussed, as is the worldwide status.

Keywords: Community Attitudes and Responses, Marital Rape, Racial & Ethnic Differences

Ruback, R. B., Menard, K. S., Outlaw, M. C., & Shaffer, J. N. (1999). Normative advice to campus crime victims: Effects of gender, age, and alcohol. Violence and Victims, 14(4), 381-396.

This article addresses three studies that were designed to examine the impact of normative advice on reporting criminal behavior to the police as a function of crime characteristics, victim characteristics, and subject factors. The first study involved a between-subjects design wherein participants responded to a questionnaire concerning alcohol consumption, type of crime, gender of victim, and gender and age of subject. The second study used the same questionnaire as the first but described the victim as being either 18 or 21 years old. The third study examined whether the results concerning normative advice in the first two studies would be replicated when participants were asked about alternative options to calling the police, given the criminal situations addressed in the original questionnaire. Results from the three studies reveal that severity of the crime, gender of victim, and age of victim form the basis of most individuals' decisions to notify the police. In addition, the authors made the following conclusions: (1) notifying the police was considered most appropriate when the victim was a female or an older person, and when the crime was more serious, (2) the relationship between the victim and the offender affects the type of advice victims will receive from others, (3) reporting was considered inappropriate when the victim was underage and had been drinking prior to the crime, (4) females viewed notifying the police more favorably than did males, (5) most subjects consider it more appropriate for females to report a crime than for males, and (6) younger subjects were less likely to advise reporting a crime than were older subjects. The article concludes by suggesting that the perceived stigma associated with reporting a crime involving underage alcohol consumption by the victim may be a significant factor contributing to the underreporting of serious crimes on college campuses.

Keywords: Alcohol, Disclosure, Legal Responses, Myths/Stereotypes

Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Hanson, R. F., Resnick, H. S., & Walker, M. E. (1999). Prevalence, case characteristics, and long-term psychological correlates of child rape among women: A national survey. Child Maltreatment: Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, 4(3), Aug 1999, 187-200.

A national probability sample of 4,008 adult women (aged 18-69+ yrs old) was screened by phone for a history of completed rape in childhood using the Incident Classification Interview (D. G. Kilpatrick et al, 1989). Characteristics of child rape incidents were also assessed. Respondents were evaluated for a history of major depressive episode, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use problems. This study endeavored to (1) determine the prevalence of a history of completed rape in childhood among adult women in the United States; (2) collect incident-characteristic data about child rapes to develop a national profile of these assaults; and (3) examine the increased risk, if any, that being the victim of at least 1 child rape presents to women for developing PTSD, major depression, and substance use problems. Results showed that childhood rape dramatically increases risk for the development of psychological problems. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results for prevention, intervention, and future research.

Keywords: Effects, Prevention, Survivors

Schewe, P., O'Donohue, W., (1993). Rape prevention: Methodological problems and new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 667-682.

This study examines interventions that target males and are focused on primary prevention of rape. The author states that previous works have ignored situation and situation by person interactions, and have failed to develop an appropriate taxonomy of rapists. The author also contends that most programs are based on the dubious assumption that changes in attitudes will result in changes in rape incidence. It is also concluded that current studies do not demonstrate persistence of treatment effects.

Keywords: Prevention

Schewe, P.A., O'Donohue, W., (1996). Rape prevention with high-risk males: Short-term outcome of two interventions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25, 455-471.

This article discusses the development and evaluation of two interventions designed to reduce the amount of date rape attempted by male college students. The Rape Supportive Cognition's (RSC) intervention, which targets commonly held false beliefs that promote or condone coercive sexual behavior, and the Victim/Empathy Outcome Expectancies (VE/OE) intervention which targets poor victim empathy and problematic rape outcome expectancies. Seventy four high-risk subjects, as determined by scores on the Attraction to Sexual Aggression scale (ASA), were randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups, or to a no-treatment control group. Treatment effects were assessed using subjects' pre- and posttest scores on the ASA, the Rape Myth Acceptance, the Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence, and the Adversarial Sexual Beliefs scales, as well as subjects' posttest scores on the Rape Conformity Assessment. Results indicated that both treatments were significantly more effective than no treatment, with the RSC group showing clinically significant changes on three of the five dependent measures, while the VE/OE group evidenced significant changes on only one measure.

Keywords: College, Evaluation, Perpetration, Prevention

Schissel, B. (2000). Boys against girls: The structural and interpersonal dimensions of violent patriarchal culture in the lives of young men. Violence Against Women, 6(9), 960-986.

This article contends that male youth violence against female youth is a formidable social problem that originates largely within the confines of patriarchal/profit-driven culture. It is noted that many factors that cause young men to be aggressive and abusive to young women originate within cultures of achievement such as sports, where aggression is equated with success and where girls and women are literally and figuratively relegated to exploited or denigrated positions. Using both an empirically based causal analysis of youth in Canada and a more descriptive analysis of several male contexts, the author tests and describes how personal and interpersonal experiences influence aggression toward young women and how these experiences often arise in contexts that are both ideological and profit driven.

Keywords: Community Attitudes and Responses, Male-Female Relations

Schwartz, M. D., & Leggett, M. S. (1999). Bad Dates or Emotional Trauma? The Aftermath of Campus Sexual Assault. Violence Against Women, 5(3), 251-271.

Critics of campus rape research have suggested that researchers exaggerate their figures by confounding rape with bad dates. While researchers have compared stranger to acquaintance rapes, they have not compared women raped while too drunk to resist to those raped by force. This study of 65 rape victims (in a sample of 388 college seniors) found no evidence for critics' claims. Women raped while intoxicated are not less emotionally affected and do not blame themselves more. Most women did not classify their experiences as rape, although under criminal law they were all victims. The authors assert that this lack of recognition is what causes hidden victims, ie, those who do not report rapes or seek help for their victimization experience.

Keywords: Alcohol, College, Myths/Stereotypes

Schwartz, M., O'Leary, S. G., & Kendziora, K. T. (1997). Dating aggression among high school students. Violence and Victims, 12(4), 294-305.

A sample of 228 (122 male and 106 female) high school students were surveyed to assess physical violence and aggression among dating partners. Links with parental aggression and justification of aggression during an argument were examined. In the total sample, 44% of the females and 16% of the males reported aggressive behavior against their partner in at least one incident, with the most popular form of aggression being pushing, grabbing or shoving. Parental aggression was significantly predictive of male adolescent aggression but no of female aggression. The results suggest distinctly different patterns of causation of dating aggression for males and females. Limitations of the study are discussed and some possible explanations for the results are addressed. *It is important not to draw early conclusions from the literature on gender and violence.

Keywords: Adolescents, Prevalence

Scott, C.S., Lefley, H.P., Hicks, D. (1993). Potential risk factors for rape in three ethnic groups. Community Mental Health Journal, 29, 133-141.

Discusses the frequency of risk factors detected in a study of sexual assault among African-American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White women during treatment at a major rape treatment center. A total of 881 victims were screened, 449 were negative for observable risk factors while the remaining 432 were positive for risk factors. These risk factors included, previous history of rape or incest, mental disability, tourist or visitor status, and homelessness. Results suggest that ethnic groups vary significantly in these categories. It is suggested that economic and cultural variables may affect rape risk factors and should be taken into account when planning rape prevention programs.

Keywords: Prevention, Risk

Shelton, J. N., & Chavous, T. M. (1999). Black and White college women's perceptions of sexual harassment. Sex Roles, 40(7-8), 593-615.

This study examines how racial factors may influence college women's perceptions about sexual harassment. The authors examined whether 46 Black and 89 White women perceived unsolicited sexual behavior between Black women and Black men differently from such behavior between Black women and a White men. The data suggest that sexual harassment between Black women and men is regarded as inconsequential as compared to sexual behavior between Black women and White men. The findings are examined with regard to the importance of studying the experience of sexual harassment for women of color.

Keywords: College, Harassment, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Vulnerability

Short, L. M., McMahon, P. M., Davis, D.C., Shelley, G. A., Lezin, N., Sloop, K.S., & Dawkins, N. (2000). Survivors' identification of protective factors and early warning signs for intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 6(3), 272-285.

Generated hypotheses about factors that may place women at risk for an abusive relationship, the potential early warning signs for physical partner violence, and the potential protective factors for cessation of violence once it has begun. Hypotheses explored women in violent sexual relationships: reasons women stay, what helps end the violence, barriers, potential early warning signs, resources, racial differences, and location differences. 22 focus groups of 168 urban and rural African American and White women in 5 US regions were convened. Participants were between the ages of 18-50 yrs old, had experienced physical violence in intimate relationships, and had been free of violence for at least 6 months. Similarities were found among all groups in their experiences of intimate partner violence. Women in the focus groups stated that once violence started in their intimate relationships, it escalated over time. Findings provide insights and tangible suggestions for social institutions to help victims. The findings suggest a need for health communications messages and interventions to help others vulnerable to abuse.

Keywords: Male-Female Relations, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Survivors

Shultz, S. K., Scherman, A., and Marshall, L. J. (2000). Evaluation of university-based date rape prevention program: Effect on attitudes and behavior related to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 41(2), 193-201.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Campus Rape Prevention program in changing rape-related attitudes and behaviors of 60 male and female undergraduate students, 18-22 years. Participants in the treatment groups were less accepting of rape myths than those in the control groups, suggesting that treatment is better than no treatment; results suggest that changes observed between treatment and control groups were the result of the prevention program rather than pretests. It was not possible to dismiss the existence of a relationship between rape-related attitudes and behaviors. The results of this study offer support that male participants' attitudes in support of rape decreased following the prevention program.

Keywords: College, Evaluation, Myth/Stereotypes, Prevention

Smith, D. W., Letourneau, E. J., Saunders, B.E., Kilpatrick, D.G., Resnick, H.S., & Best, C. L. (2000). Delay in disclosure of childhood rape: Results from a national survey. Child Abuse & Neglect 24(2), 273-287.

Gathered representative data regarding the length of time women who were raped before age 18 delayed prior to disclosing such rapes, whom they disclosed to, and variables that predicted disclosure within 1 mo. Data were gathered from 3,220 Wave II respondents from the National Women's Study (H. S. Resnick et al, see record 1994-25706-001), a nationally representative telephone survey of women's experiences with trauma and mental health. Of these, 288 retrospectively reported at least 1 rape prior to their 18th birthday. Details of rape experiences were analyzed to identify predictors of disclosure within 1 mo. Fully 28% of child rape victims reported that they had never told anyone about their child rape prior to the research interview; 47% did not disclose for over 5 yrs post-rape. Close friends were the most common confidants. Younger age at the time of rape, family relationship with the perpetrator, and experiencing a series of rapes were associated with disclosure latencies longer than 1 mo; shorter delays were associated with stranger rapes. Logistic regression revealed that age at rape and knowing the perpetrator were independently predictive of delayed disclosure.

Keywords: Disclosure

Smith, P., & Welchans, S. (2000). Peer Education: Does Focusing on Male Responsibility Change Sexual Assault Attitudes? Violence Against Women, 6(11), 1255-1268.

The authors investigated a peer education program involving a 45-minute presentation emphasizing male responsibility in decreasing sexual assault. Trained high school students presented information on sexual assault risk reduction, rape culture, sexual assault law, how to help a friend who has been assaulted, and male responsibility in preventing sexual assault. Analysis of results showed decreased rape tolerant attitudes among high school students immediately post-presentation. Whereas the scores of female students showed less acceptance of rape myths and victim-blaming attitudes than males at both pretest and posttest, male student attitudes showed more improvement following the presentation than those of the females.

Keywords: Adolescence/High School, Myths and Stereotypes

Sommers, M. S.; Schafer, J.; Zink, T.; Hutson, L.; Hillard, P. (2001). Injury patterns in women resulting from sexual assault. Trauma Violence & Abuse. 2(3), 240-258.

The purpose of this article is to review current research on the techniques used in forensic examination of genital and nongenital sexual assault victims. Three techniques are currently used during examination: direct visualization, staining, and colposcopy. Physical injury is found to be reported differently depending on the method used by investigators. Because colposcopy allows examiners to identify injuries at the microscopic level, women who were assessed through this technique appeared to have more injuries than those examined through staining and direct visualization. Authors conclude that examinations following sexual assault should encompass a total physical examination so the severity, location, and injury patterns can be used by examiners and prosecutors. (posted 12/18/2002)

Keywords: Injury, Legal Responses

Stermac, L., Sheridan, P. M., Davidson, A., Dunn, S. (1996). Sexual assault of adult males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11(1), 52-64.

This study examines the instance and characteristics of sexual assault against 29 males aged 18-65, who were seen in a crisis unit. The men's personal history, demographic, and assault information, were reviewed. Results showed that (86%) of the sexual assaults involved male perpetrators, 1 involved a female perpetrator, and 2 involved both. 50% of the male-male assaults and both of the female-male assaults involved friends or acquaintances. Most victims were young gay men, many of whom had cognitive or physical disabilities that made them vulnerable, however, only a few of the stranger assaults appeared to be related to antigay violence.

Keywords: Male Rape, Underserved Populations

Stormo, K.J., Lang, AR., Stritzke, WG., (1997). Attributions about acquaintance rape: The role of alcohol and individual differences. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 279-305.

This article explores issues surrounding the assignment of blame and responsibility in acquaintance rape incidents involving alcohol. The authors discuss how alcohol-related behaviors are viewed as being contributory to sexual assault. Subjects were asked to read vignettes depicting acquaintance rape with varying levels of intoxication. They were then asked to make attributions about the incident. Results indicate that when victims and perpetrators were portrayed as equally intoxicated and there were signs of behavioral impairment, participants rated the victim as more responsible and blameworthy. In contrast, when the victim was more intoxicated than her assailant, the perpetrator was viewed as viewed as more responsible and blameworthy. Women tended to assign more blame to the victim. The influence of individual differences in rape myth acceptance on attributions are also discussed.

Keywords: Alcohol, College, Myth/Stereotype

Sorenson, S. B. (1996). Violence against women: Examining ethnic differences and commonalities. Evaluation Review, 20(2), 123-145.

Investigated cultural differences and similarities in the options that a woman perceives, the help she seeks, and the nature and scope of violence she experiences in an intimate relationship using a group discussion format. Adult volunteer Ss represented the African American, Anglo American, Asian American, and Mexican American communities. The 12 focus groups were comprised of 3 to 10 Ss of the same ethnicity, gender, and current residence (i.e., shelter or community). The following central themes are discussed: intersection of gender and ethnicity, immigration as a challenge to family and cultural history, the role of social institutions, family and friends, and the range of violent experiences and their outcomes, including psychological and economic consequences. Observations relevant to research, policy, and service provision are offered.

Keywords: Effects, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Vulnerability

Stromsness, M. M. (1993). Sexually abused women with mental retardation: Hidden victims, absent resources. Women & Therapy, 14, 139-152.

The author of this report examines the occurrence of sexual abuse experienced by adult women with mild mental retardation. The author collected data from 14 women in a non clinical population using a 55 item structured interview. The results indicated that approximately 82% of survivors were molested prior to their 18th birthday. While sex education sis not prevent abuse the author reports that it appeared to increase reporting. Additionally the author found that the majority of survivors interviewed had received no medical, mental health, or legal services. The author concludes that women with mental retardation encounter substantial barriers that prevent access to services.

Keywords: Underserved populations

Teets, J. M. (1997). The incidence and experience of rape among chemically dependent women. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 29(4), 331-336.

In this descriptive study, the author assessed incidence and experience of rape among women who were chemically dependent. A total of 60 women in a residential treatment facility were interviewed about lifelong sexual trauma. Of the 60, 73% had been raped, with 45% having been raped multiple times. Rape recountings were classified into five categories: while in the context of substance use, when too high to resist, while prostituting, by a significant other, and by a family member. Approximately 35% of the rapists described were friends of the women with whom they were using drugs. Only 20% of the rapes were reported to police. The article concludes with clinical implications for treatment of addicted survivors.

Keywords: Treatment, Survivors

Testa, M., & Dermen, K. H. (1999). The differential correlates of sexual coercion and rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14(5), 548-561.

The authors examined the correlates of sexual coercion and rape/attempted rape experiences separately among a sample of 190 women (aged 20-35 yrs) who were at increased risk of sexual victimization as a result of their high levels of sexual activity and alcohol consumption. We hypothesized that personality variables would be associated with sexual coercion but not rape experiences. We found that low self-esteem, low assertiveness, and high sex-related alcohol expectancies were associated with sexual coercion experiences but not with rape or attempted rape. Higher levels of casual sexual activity and alcohol consumption were associated with both types of experiences. Findings suggest that sexual coercion may be prevented by improving sexual assertiveness and weakening alcohol expectancies to emphasize personal control.

Keywords: Alcohol, Vulnerability

Thakkar, R. R. & McCanne, T. R. (2000). The effects of daily stressors on physical health in women with and without a childhood history of sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(2), 209-221.

The focus of this study is the impact of a history of sexual abuse during childhood on the effects of daily stress and physical symptoms during adulthood among a sample of 491 female college students. The participants in the study responded to self-report questionnaires over a period of 28 consecutive days. Analysis revealed that women with a history of childhood sexual abuse are more sensitive to the effects of increased daily stress. In addition, this sensitivity is associated with their increased likelihood to report physical symptoms during the days prior to their most stressful day. However, elevated levels of physical symptoms were not reported for the days following the high-stress target days implying that daily stress has a discrete and short effect on the report of physical symptoms. In contrast, women without a history of sexual abuse during childhood show no significant association between daily stress and physical symptoms. The article concludes by proposing several possible explanations for the results found in the study, contrasts these with other studies on the same topic, and addresses certain limitations specific to the research.

Keywords: Effects, Survivors

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. Research Report (NCJ 183781).

This report presents findings from the NVAW Survey on the prevalence and incidence of rape, physical assault, and stalking; the rate of injury among rape and physical assault victims; and injured victims' use of medical services. Among the many findings the authors indicate that: (1) 17.6 percent of all women surveyed said they had survived a completed or attempted rape at some time in their life, 54% of these women were under 18 when they were first raped. (2) 2.2 percent of men and 8.1 percent of women reported being stalked at some time in their life. (3) American Indian/Alaska Native women were significantly more likely than African-American women, white women, or mixed-race women to report being raped. (4) Those women who reported they were raped prior to 18 were twice as likely to report another rape as an adult. (5) Those women who reported that they were stalked prior to 18 were seven times more likely to indicate that they were stalked as an adult. (6) Women experience more intimate partner violence than do men. (7) 64.0 percent of women vs. 16.2 percent of men experience intimate partner violence (rape, physical assault, and/or stalking) (8) Women (31.5 percent) are much more likely than men (16.1 percent) to be injured during an assault. (9) When the perpetrator is a current or former intimate partner the risk of injury to a woman increases. The authors discuss the findings in terms of their importance to intervention planners, policymakers, and legislators, as well as the criminal justice and public health communities. (*ADHS funded agencies can request a copy of this report by contacting the RPEP office. The report can also be obtained directly from publications section of the National Institute of Justice website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/.)

Keywords: Prevalence, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Stalking

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Research Report, Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. Research Report (NCJ 181867).

This report presents findings from the National Violence Against Women (NVAW) Survey on the extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence in the United States. The survey compares victimization rates among 16,000 women and men, specific racial groups, Hispanics and non-Hispanics, and same-sex and opposite-sex cohabitants. It also examines risk factors associated with intimate partner violence, the rate of injury among rape and physical assault victims, injured victims' use of medical services, and victims' involvement with the justice system. (*ADHS funded agencies can request a copy of this report by contacting the RPEP office. The report can also be obtained directly from publications section of the National Institute of Justice website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/.)

Keywords: Legal Responses, Male Rape, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Risk

Tyler, K. A., Hoyt, D. R., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1998). Coercive sexual strategies. Violence and Victims, 13(1), 47-61.

The study in this article examines the sexually coercive behaviors of men and the outcomes of these behaviors on women using a sample of 541 undergraduate college students. It was determined that men used three types of coercive sexual strategies. Data was analyzed on the use of these strategies and women's experience with these coercive behaviors. For women, being a victim of sexually coercive strategies is significantly correlated with being sexually active, having sexually permissive attitudes, and drinking alcohol. For men, sexually permissive attitudes and attitudes toward rape were significantly correlated with the use of verbal coercion. Gathering data from both the perpetrator and the victim allows for a broader representation of the fundamental processes of the manner in which sexually coercive behaviors are played out.

Keywords: Risk, Vulnerability

Ullman, S.E. (1996). Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(4), 505-526.

In this paper, the author presents results how social reaction to rape disclosure affects the disclosing sexual-assault victims. A mail survey was completed by a convenience sample of adult sexual-assault victims (N = 155). Information was obtained on sexual assaults and post-assault experiences. As expected, all negative social reactions were strongly associated with increased psychological symptoms, while most positive social reactions were unrelated to adjustment. The only social reactions related to better adjustment were being believed and being listened to by others. Victims experiencing negative social reactions reported poorer adjustment even after controlling for other variables known to affect psychological recovery. Avoidance coping mediated the association of negative social reactions with adjustment. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for research and treatment of sexual-assault survivors.

Keywords: Disclosure, Treatment

Ullman, S. E. (1997). Review and critique of empirical studies of rape avoidance. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 24(2), 177-204.

Reviewed published studies of rape avoidance to evaluate the scientific basis for rape avoidance advice. Results are evaluated in light of conceptual and methodological limitations of this literature, and specific recommendations for future research are provided. Consistent evidence suggests the effectiveness of forceful resistance strategies for avoiding rape; however, few studies have analyzed resistance within the social and situational contexts of rape to provide situation-specific information about rape avoidance. Larger, representative community studies are needed in which a broader range of situational factors, resistance strategies, and assault outcomes are assessed. Interactions of contextual factors such as pre-assault alcohol use and the victim-offender relationship with offense behaviors should be tested, and data on the sequential ordering of offender attack and victim resistance should be analyzed to enhance prediction of the probability of completed rape and physical injury to victims.

Keywords: Alcohol, Avoidance/Resistance

Ullman, S.E. (1998). Does offender violence escalate when women fight back? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 179-192.

Records of completed and attempted rape incidents reported to the Chicago police were examined to determine whether rapists escalate the level of violence in their attacks when victims fight back. Findings indicate that physical resistance by victims was not related to the use of physical force by the offender. Results were inconclusive in terms of whether resistance to verbal or physical attacks led to increased levels offender violence after the rape. Limitations of the study include few women from the sample physically resisted their offenders and all incidents examined were cases of stranger rape.

Keywords: Avoidance/Resistance

Ullman, S.E., Karabatsos, G., & Koss, M. P. (1999). Alcohol and sexual aggression in a national sample of college men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23(4),673-689.

Analyzed the role of alcohol in sexual assaults committed by 694 men identified from a national sample of 2,972 male college students (mean age 21 yrs) completing a survey. Interactions of alcohol use with assault variables did not suggest any synergistic role of alcohol use in predicting sexual aggression severity. Path analysis showed, however, that offender propensity to abuse alcohol and victim preassault alcohol use were each both directly and indirectly related to sexual aggression severity, whereas offender preassault alcohol use was not directly related to sexual aggression severity. This study suggests that alcohol use plays both direct and indirect roles in the outcomes of sexual assaults. Rape and alcohol abuse prevention efforts can benefit from incorporating information about alcohol's role in different assault contexts.

Keywords: Alcohol, Prevention

Ullman, S.E., Knight, R.A. (1992). Fighting Back: Women's resistance to rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 31-43.

Women's resistance strategies were examined using police reports and court testimonies of 274 women who were survivors of attempted or completed rapes (in cases where the offenders were subsequently incarcerated). The sequence of behaviors in the offender-victim interaction were analyzed to determine whether women who resist rape with physical force are increasing their risk for physical injury. This study indicates that the frequently found correlation between physical resistance and injury to women during a sexual assault might be the result of the initial level of the offender's violence and should not be used to discourage women from physically resisting rape.

Keywords: Resistance

Ullman, S. E., & Knight, R. A. (1991). A multivariate model for predicting rape and physical injury outcomes during sexual assaults. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 59(5), 724-731.

The authors used police reports and court testimonies of 274 women who either avoided rape or were raped in order to study the relation between situational factors, offender aggression, and victim resistance and women's sexual abuse and physical injury during sexual assaults. The use of hierarchical multiple regression showed that controlling for situational factors, (1) women's screaming/yelling was related to less severe sexual abuse, and (2) offender physical aggression was related to increased physical injury. An a priori model of the interrelations among offense components and injury outcomes was tested with path analysis. More forceful victim resistance was directly related to less severe sexual abuse even when controlling for level of situational danger and level of offender aggression. In contrast, more forceful victim resistance was not related to the level of physical injury when both the level of situational danger and the level of offender aggression in the assault were controlled.

Keywords: Avoidance/Resistance

Ullman, S.E., Knight, R.A. (1993). The efficacy of women's resistance strategies in rape situations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 23-38.

This article analyzes the effectiveness of women's resistance strategies for reducing the severity of sexual abuse and physical injury during sexual assaults. Data were obtained from police reports and court testimonies. Resistance strategies varied in their efficacy in different situations in a sample of violent stranger rapes. Results indicate that physical resistance strategies showed equal efficacy, whereas verbal strategies varied in their effectiveness. Over all, women who fought back forcefully were more likely to avoid rape than women who did not fight back, regardless of whether a weapon was present.

Keywords: Avoidance/Resistance

Underwood, M.M., Fiedler, N., (1983) The crisis of rape: A community response. Community Mental Health Journal, 19, 227-230.

Describes a program that was developed in response to a community's reaction to several highly publicized child sexual assaults. The program incorporates education on mental health issues and information on crisis intervention strategies. The authors argue that the keys to community intervention, are 1) the timeliness of the intervention, 2) the coordination of resources and talents and 3) cooperation between agencies.

Keywords: Community Attitudes & Responses

Vearnals, S.; Campbell, T. (2001). Male victims of male sexual assault: A review of psychological consequences and treatment. Sexual & Relationship Therapy. 2001 Aug Vol 16(3) 279-286.

Recently in the UK, males were incorporated in the definition of rape. Prior to that, it was legally impossible for a male to be a victim of sexual assault. Not only in the UK but worldwide, the issue of male sexual assault is under addressed. The authors discuss the health consequences of MSA, the lack of research in this area, and they stress the need for appropriate treatment interventions for victims. Further research is urged in this area especially in the epidemiology of MSA, the emotional, physical and psychological consequences, and the most effective psychological interventions. (posted 12/18/2002)

Keywords: Male Rape, Treatment,

Vicary, J.R., Klingaman, L.R., Harkness, W.L., (1995). Risk factors associated with date rape and sexual assault of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 289-306.

This article discusses a research project, which spanned four years, in which prevalence of and risk factors associated with unwanted sexual activity by dates/boyfriends was studied in a sample of rural, adolescent girls. Earlier age of menarche and sexual activity, as well as more sexually active same sex friends, poor peer relationships, and poor emotional status were found to be significant predictors of sexual assault. Familial variables, such as living with both biological parents, church attendance, and quality of relationship between the subject and her family, were not found to be significant predictors of unwanted sexual activity.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Prevalence, Risk

Walker, E. A., Gelfand, A. N., Gelfand, M. D., Koss, M. P. (1995). Medical and psychiatric symptoms in female gastroenterology clinic patients with histories of sexual victimization. General Hospital Psychiatry 17(2), 85-92.

Interviewed 89 adult female gastroenterology clinic patients, classified by severity of sexual trauma, and studied for differences in lifetime psychiatric diagnoses, physical abuse, and medically unexplained symptom patterns. Compared with the 46 women with less severe or no prior sexual trauma, the 43 Ss with severe victimization had significantly higher lifetime and current rates of several selected psychiatric disorders and significantly higher mean numbers of lifetime psychiatric disorders, medically unexplained physical and anxiety symptoms, greater harm avoidance and dissociation scores, and increased functional disability. Logistic regression showed that main predictors of a history of severe sexual abuse were the number of medically unexplained symptoms, adult physical abuse, and lifetime dysthymic disorder.

Keywords: Effects, Treatment

Walker, E. A., Unutzer, J., Rutter, C., Gelfand, A., Saunders, K., VonKorff, M., Koss, M. P., & Katon, W. (1999). Costs of health care use by women HMO members with a history of childhood abuse and neglect. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(7), 609-613.

Examined differences in annual health care use and costs in women with and without histories of childhood maltreatment. 1225 women (aged 18-65 yrs), who were currently enrolled in an health maintenance organization (HMO), completed a questionnaire inquiring about childhood maltreatment in 5 areas: emotional, physical and sexual abuse, emotional and physical neglect. Information on health care cost and utilization were obtained from the automated cost-accounting system of the HMO. Overall, results indicated that childhood maltreatment is significantly associated with increased adult medical care costs and visits. Ss who reported abuse or neglect had median health care costs (MHCC) $97 per year greater than Ss who did not report maltreatment. Furthermore, Ss who reported sexual abuse had MHCC $245 greater per year than Ss who did not report abuse, and were nearly twice as likely to visit the emergency department.

Keywords: Effects

Walters, K. L.; Simoni, J. M.; Horwath, P. F. (2001). Sexual orientation bias Experiences and service needs of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, and two-spirited American Indians. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services: Issues in Practice, Policy & Research, 13(1-2), 133-149.

This article discusses bias experiences and service needs of American Indians who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, and two-spirited. Twenty-two members of a Northeastern Native American community were surveyed and 8 focus groups were held in the area. Despite limitations in methodology, data indicates lack of trained staff or assessment and treatment of trauma, the potential problem of secondary victimization, invisibility at the societal level, and racism. Authors stress the need for programs that incorporates American Indian GLBTT-S health needs and educational programs for community outreach. (posted 12/18/2002)

Keywords: Underserved populations, GLBT, Native Americans

Webster, R. E. (2001). Symptoms and long-term outcomes for children who have been sexually assaulted. Psychology in the Schools, 38(6), 533-547.

The present article focuses on the definition, frequency, short and long term effects, and treatment of child sexual abuse. Data from the National Center of Child Abuse and Neglect (1996) indicates that 300,000 children are sexually abused or assaulted every year. With increasing number of cases of child sexual assault, it is suggested that educators routinely encounter children victims of CSA. This article provides a review of issues and symptoms involved with CSA. The author stresses the need for school professionals to be more sensitive and aware of CSA in order to prevent children from further physical and psychological harm. (posted 12/18/2002)

Keywords: Adolescent/High school, Treatment

Wechsler, H., Dowdall, G., Maenner, G., Gledhill-Hoyt, J., & Lee, H. (1998). Changes in binge drinking and related problems among American college students between 1993 and 1997. Results of the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. College Health, 47, 57-68.

In 1997 the Harvard School of Public Health conducted a resurvey of 130 of the 140 colleges that participated in the 1993 College Alcohol Study. The original colleges surveyed were a random sample of 4-year colleges in the United States. Binge drinking and health and behavioral consequences of drinking were measured by using the results of completed questionnaires. Secondary binge effects of students who were not current binge drinkers themselves were examined. Alcohol-related sexual assault and unwanted sexual advances occurred almost exclusively to women. The results do not show significant change in binge drinking among college students.

Keywords: Alcohol, College, Prevalence

Welsh, S. (2000). The multidimensional nature of sexual harassment: An empirical analysis of women's sexual harassment complaints. Violence Against Women, 6(2), 118-141.

The author addresses two issues: (a) what types of sexual harassment behaviors are experienced by women complainants? and (b) are these experiences of sexual harassment characterized by isolated or multidimensional incidents? Based on data from 296 sexual harassment complaints lodged with the Canadian Human Rights Commission between 1978 and 1993, analysis shows that women complainants experience a range of behaviors, with quid pro quo harassment occurring in only 14% of the complaints. Complaints are multidimensional and can be characterized as either containing poisoned environment harassment or quid pro quo sexual behaviors.

Keywords: Harassment

West, C. M., & Rose, S. (2000). Dating aggression among low income African American youth: An examination of gender differences and antagonistic beliefs. Violence Against Women 6(5), 470-494.

Investigated the prevalence of aggression inflicted and sustained in dating relationships for 171 low income African American 16-24 yr olds. Survey data revealed that more women were victims of choking, attempted forced intercourse, and hurt feelings. As perpetrators, more women reported making threats, throwing objects, and hitting their partner. However, men perpetrated more serious sexual and psychological aggression, including forced breast fondling, attempted forced intercourse, and making a partner feel inferior and degrading her. Women victims of sexual aggression, when compared to nonvictims, expressed more agreement with adversarial sexual beliefs regarding male-female relationships. More than one-third of the participants endorsed antagonistic beliefs concerning Black male-female relationships. Suggestions for intervention are presented.

Keywords: Male-Female Relations, Racial/Ethnic Differences

White, A. M., Strube, M. J., & Fisher, S. (1998). A black feminist model of rape myth acceptance: Implications for research and anti-rape advocacy in black communities. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 157-175.

A Black feminist model of rape myth acceptance was used to investigate rape myths using Roush's (1985) feminist identity model and Cross's (1991) racial identity model. A group of African American anti-rape activists were compared to a group of non-activists. As predicted, those who were activists rejected rape myths. The early stages of both models were associated with rape myth acceptance and the later stages were associated with rape myth rejection. Those in the later stages also expressed an active commitment to social change and embraced more humanistic perspectives. The findings of the research suggest that there is a relationship between social systems such as racism and sexism that give rise to various attitudes and beliefs.

Keywords: Myths/Stereotypes

White, J. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (1998). Male violence toward women: An integrated perspective. In: Geen, Russell G.; Ed; Donnerstein, Edward; et al; Ed; Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy.; p. 203-228. Academic Press, Inc. San Diego, CA.

Focuses on male intimate aggression/violence directed toward females. /// Single and multifactor theories that have been used to explain male violence against women are described. An integrative contextual developmental perspective is provided to organize information about violence against women. This model provides a metatheoretical framework within which more specific theories and hypotheses can be considered. The evidence concerning the various forms of violence against women is summarized, including prevalence and characteristics of the perpetrator, victim, and circumstances surrounding each of the various forms of aggression. This approach is adopted to emphasize that an individual's behavior can be best understood by considering the impact of historical, sociocultural, and social factors across time on cognitive and motivational processes that result in aggression and violence.

Keyboards: Male-Female Relationships, Prevalence

Widom, C. S. (1989). Child abuse, neglect and adult behavior: Research design and findings on criminality, violence and child abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(3), 355-367.

The purpose of this article is to determine the extent to which individuals engage in delinquency and adult criminal behavior based on having been abused as a child. The sample group consisted of documented cases of child abuse from 1967 through 1971 with a control group, with no history of abuse, matched by similar demographics. Subsequent juvenile and adult criminal records for both the sample group and the control group were obtained. The findings show that the sample group had higher records of adult criminal offenses than the control group, but they did not show higher incidence of being child abusers. The necessity for further research is discussed.

Keywords: Effects, Risk

Wyatt, G. E. (1992). The sociocultural context of African American and White American women's rape. Journal of Social Issues, 48(1), 77-91

This article examines cultural and ethnic factors affecting women's reactions and adjustments to sexual assault. 55 African American and White American women (aged 18-36 yrs) reporting 146 incidents of attempted and completed rapes were interviewed. There were no significant ethnic differences in the prevalence of rape. African American's in this sample were less likely to disclose sexual assault. Women in both groups experienced lasting psychological effects, including emotional distress connected to the abuse, chronic depression, mistrust of people, men in particular, and specific fears.

Keywords: Effects, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Prevalence

Yeater, E. A. & O'Donohue, W. (1999). Sexual assault prevention programs: Current issues, future directions, and the potential efficacy of interventions with women. Clinical Psychology Review 19(7), 739-771.

Current problems facing the primary prevention of sexual assault are reviewed. Effective sexual assault prevention programs for both males and females have been slow to develop due to the fact that the etiologies of sexual assault have not been identified. Although dissemination of prevention programs has become increasingly popular in recent years, few programs have evaluated the extent to which the constructs identified in the interventions are effective at decreasing rates of sexual assault. The authors discuss previous studies in sexual assault prevention programs, methodological and conceptual problems that currently exist in the field, pragmatic difficulties regarding program implementation and evaluation, and recommendations for future research with an emphasis on interventions with female participants. It is concluded that the long-term negative consequences often associated with sexual victimization require that effective prevention programs are developed to decrease the high rates of sexual assault that occur on college campuses.

Keywords: College, Evaluation, Prevention

Yescavage, K. (1999). Teaching Women a Lesson: Sexually Aggressive and Sexually Nonaggressive Men's Perceptions of Acquaintance and Date Rape. Violence Against Women, 5(7), 796-812.br>
The author claims that date and acquaintance rape is a pervasive problem on college campuses. In this paper, the influence of situational factors and individual differences on college men's perceptions of acquaintance and date rape scenarios were investigated. Onset of refusal and duration of relationship factors influenced men's perceptions of victim and perpetrator accountability as well as their likelihood to label a situation rape. Differences were also found between perceptions of men who self-reported engaging in sexually aggressive behaviors and men who did not. Both token resistance and male entitlement explanations were taken into account while explaining these findings.

Keywords: College, Male-Female Relations

Zoucha-Jensen, J. M., & Coyne, A. (1993). The effects of resistance strategies on rape. American Journal of Public Health, 83(11), 1633-1634.

Investigated which resistance strategies are associated with rape avoidance and the extent to which these strategies place the victim at risk for injury. Data were gathered from initial and supplemental police reports about 150 female sexual assault victims (aged 16+ yrs). Although the analysis could not determine causality, it did indicate that forceful verbal resistance, physical resistance, and fleeing were all associated with rape avoidance. Ss who used forceful resistance were no more likely to have been injured than were Ss who did not resist.

Keywords: Avoidance/Resistance

. Report problems to karenb@u.arizona.edu