Arizona Rape Prevention and Education Project -- Abstracts H to M

Arizona Rape Prevention Education Project -- University of Arizona Department of Public Health

Research Abstracts H to M

Note: Abstracts are arranged alphabetically on 4 pages. You may go directly to the other pages if you wish. Abstracts are broken down by: A to C D to G H to M and N to Z.

Hall, G. C. N., & Barongan, C. (1997). Prevention of sexual aggression: Sociocultural risk and protective factors. American Psychologist, 52(1), 5-14.

Physiological, cognitive, affective, and developmental sociocultural risk factors for perpetrating sexual aggression are identified. Feminine and multicultural socialization may serve as protective factors against these risk factors because both forms of socialization emphasize empathy and sexuality in the context of committed relationships. It is proposed that feminist and multicultural education across the developmental span may constitute methods of reducing and preventing the development of sexually aggressive behavior. However, feminist and multicultural approaches may have limited impact without greater acceptance within societal power structures, including psychology. The authors call for psychologists interested in reducing sexually aggressive behavior to become better informed and experienced with feminist and multicultural approaches. They also suggest that it may be time for all persons in society to become competent in multiple domains.

Keywords: Prevention, Risk

Hanley, M. J., & O'Neill, P. (1997). Violence and commitment: A study of dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12(5), 685-703.

The authors administered the Conflict Tactics Scale and measures of emotional commitment to dating couples who were college students. Members of a couple were independently tested, so that they could not influence each others' response choices. Participants reported both committing and receiving acts of violence and verbal aggression. They also assessed both their own level of commitment and their perception of the commitment level of their partners. Overall, it became possible to examine 3 possible similarities: between the partners, between self-rating and perception of partner, and between rating of the partner and the partner's self-report. At least one member reported in violence in one-third of couples, but prevalence dropped below 20% when taking into account both members' responses. There was little agreement about who did what to whom. Violent couples reported greater commitment to the relationship and were also more likely to disagree with each other's level of emotional commitment.

Keywords: College, Male-Female Relations

Hanson, K.A., Gidycz, C.A., (1993). Evaluation of a sexual assault prevention program. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 61(6), 1046-1052.

This article presents the results of a sexual assault prevention program evaluation. 360 female college students participated in the study, 181 were assigned to the treatment group and 165 were assigned to the control group. The results indicated that the program was effective in decreasing the incidence of sexual assault for women without a sexual assault history but was not effective in decreasing rates of sexual assault for women with sexual assault histories. Those participating in the treatment group reported decreases in dating behaviors found to be associated with acquaintance rape and increases in knowledge about sexual assault. Implications are discussed.

Keywords: Evaluation, Prevention

Hanson, R. K., & Harris, A. J. R. (2000). Where should we intervene?: Dynamic predictors of sexual assault recidivism. Criminal Justice & Behavior 27(1), 6-35.

The authors interviewed community supervision officers and reviewed the files on 208 sexual offense recidivists and 201 nonrecidivists, with an eye to collecting data on dynamic (changeable) risk factors. They found that the recidivists generally had poor social supports, attitudes tolerant of sexual assault, antisocial lifestyles, poor self-management strategies, and difficulties cooperating with supervision. The recidivists and nonrecidivists was similar in terms of overall mood, but the recidivists showed increased anger and subjective distress just before reoffending. Dynamic risk factors continued to be strongly associated with recidivism, even after controlling for preexisting differences in static risk factors. The factors identified in the interview data were reflected (to a lesser extent) in the officers' contemporaneous case notes, suggesting that the interview findings are not completely attributable to retrospective recall bias.

Keywords: Perpetration, Risk

Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Keywords: Community Attitudes & Responses, Effects, Male-Female Relations, Marital Rape, Myths/Stereotypes, Perpetration, Prevalence, Prevention, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Risk, Statistics, Vulnerability

Heppner, M. J, Humphrey, C.F., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T.L, DeBord, K.A. (1995). The differential effects of rape prevention programming on attitudes, behavior, and knowledge. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 508-518.

This study evaluates how program type affects the processing of rape prevention messages targeting, attitudes, knowledge, behaviors, and change. 258 participants were assigned to one of three conditions 1) didactic-video program, 2) interactive drama intervention, or non-treatment control. Results show that both the interactive drama and the didactic-video intervention were more effective than the control at altering men's rape myth acceptance at 1-month post intervention. Change however was not stable: both interventions had rebounding scores on rape attitudes. Participants in the interactive drama condition were more able to identify consent versus coercion and demonstrate differences on behavioral indicators.

Keywords: Evaluation, Prevention

Heppner, M. J., Neville, H. A., Smith, K., Kivlighan, D.M., & Gershuny, B. S. (1999). Examining immediate and long-term efficacy of rape prevention programming with racially diverse college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46(1), 16-26.

The authors investigated the short- and long-term (5-month) effectiveness of a theoretically driven, programmatic rape prevention intervention on a sample of primarily White and Black college men. A racially diverse sample was included, and the potential effectiveness of both a culturally relevant and a traditional "colorblind" intervention was assessed. In contrast to earlier investigations, which have consistently reported an overall rebound of scores at the follow-up assessment, results from a hierarchical cluster analysis indicated 3 patterns of treatment response: improving, deteriorating, and rebounding. Results also indicated that Black students in the culturally relevant treatment condition were more cognitively engaged in the intervention than their peers in the traditional treatment condition.

Keywords: Prevention, Racial and Ethnic Differences

Hickman, S. E., & Muehlenhard, C. L.(1997). College women's fears and precautionary behaviors relating to acquaintance rape and stranger rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 527-547.

In the past, research on women's fear of rape has focused primarily on women's fears relating to stranger rape, even though acquaintance rapes are far more common. The authors administered questionnaire surveys to 139 undergraduate women concerning their fears, precautionary behaviors, and beliefs relating to acquaintance and stranger rape. Respondents reported being more fearful of rape by strangers than by acquaintances, and reported engaging in more precautionary behaviors because of fear of stranger rape than of acquaintance rape. When asked to describe situations in which they feared rape, they more often described scenarios of stranger rape, even though they correctly estimated that acquaintance rape to be more common. Level of fear was the best predictor of the presence of precautionary behaviors. A history of acquaintance rape had no effect on women's responses.

Keywords: College, Vulnerability

Hills, A. M., & Taplin, J. L. (1998). Anticipated responses to stalking: Effect of threat and target-stalker relationship. Psychiatry, Psychology & Law, 5(1) 139-146.

The authors state that while anti-stalking legislation provides a remedy against the harassment of one individual by another, there is little understanding of how the community perceives stalking behaviors. This study examines the impact of threat, and target-stalker relationship on female and male beliefs about their likely responses to stalking. 172 community participants were presented a scenario concerning stalking. After reading the scenario, they filled out a rating scale. Results show that in general participants would be less frightened and less likely to call the police when being stalked by a former intimate than by a stranger. For instances of threat vs. no threat females were equally likely to call the police while males were more likely to contact the police when an explicit threat was made. Other responses confirmed that, overall, participants viewed stalking as a serious problem. However, apparent misconceptions about the relative seriousness of different stalking scenarios indicated that community education may be needed.

Keywords: Community Attitudes & Responses, Stalking

Hilton, N. Z., Harris, Grant T., & Rice, M. E. (1998). On the validity of self-reported rates of interpersonal violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13(1), 58-72.

Many researchers assume that prevalence and incidence estimates of sexual violence are valid and can be extrapolated or interpolated to different time frames. The authors assessed 3 studies that contained a total of 687 high school students. Respondents gave absolute estimates of nonphysical, physical, and sexual aggression during the past 1 mo, 6 mo, and 12 mo that did not differ significantly. Estimates were sensitive to item severity, sex of perpetrator, and sex of victim but were insensitive to the time period over which they were asked to estimate. This suggests that self-reports of interpersonal violence may be strongly affected by other factors in addition to the number of times the events have actually occurred.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Disclosure, Statistics

Hilton, N. Z., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., Krans, T. S., & Lavigne, S. E. (1998). Antiviolence education in high schools: Implementation and evaluation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13(6), 726-742.

This study examined the effects of a knowledge-based intervention administered to 350 eleventh grade students. Variables addressed included a measure of knowledge retained from the intervention, a measure of date rape attitudes, and a measure of self-reported physical and sexual aggression perpetrated by peers. Students chose to attend two 1-hour workshops from six available workshops. Analysis of their responses revealed results that may contribute towards improvements in future school-based prevention education programs. For example, classroom workshops were able to convey the most information. However, attrition of membership at the workshops, especially by students who scored low during the pretest, may account for the higher scores during the posttest phase. As such, the authors suggest that antiviolence education in high schools ought to involve training students to recognize warning signs of violence, provide them with guidance for terminating violent relationships, and aim to improve the selection of high-risk students for treatment.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Curriculum, Evaluation, Risk

Himelein, M. J. (1999). Acquaintance rape prevention with high-risk women: Identification and inoculation. Journal of College Student Development, 40(1), 93-96.

A small, short- term intervention involving was conducted in 2 steps: identifying women at risk and then attempting to "inoculate" them against acquaintance rape. Six different risk characteristics were used to identify high risk women. The group consisted of 5 90-min meetings conducted weekly in the campus counseling center. The women reported a high degree of satisfaction, considerable learning, and the belief that they had learned a great deal of relevant and worthwhile information. A follow-up questionnaire indicated that knowledge about sexual assault had increased.

Keywords: College, Prevention, Risk

Himelein, M. J., Vogel, R.E. Wachowiak, D.G., (1994). Nonconsensual sexual experiences in pre-college women: Prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72, 411-415.

This article discusses the need for education and prevention programs to target younger audiences (secondary school age), and to revise the counseling needs for college-age victims. The objective of the author's research is to profile pre-college women's history of consensual and nonconsensual sexual experiences. They also examine the occurrence of child sexual abuse and consensual sexuality activity as potential risk factors for sexual victimization in dating. Implications for counselors are discussed.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Prevalence, Prevention, Risk

Hodge, S., & Canter, D. (1998). Victims and perpetrators of male sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13(2), 222-239.

The authors report 2 differing accounts of male sexual assault in the literature. The first view is that rapes are perpetrated by homosexual offenders, the other view is that rape is predominantly an example of heterosexual violence. This article reports on the results a study constructed to explore both possibilities. Data from eighty-three male sexual assault victims and thirty-six investigated police reports was reviewed. Results indicated that homosexual offenders knew their victims for some time and targeted males under the age of 25. Heterosexual offenders were more to attack strangers of all ages and tended to operate in gangs. Consistent with the literature on the rape of females the data indicated that the acquaintance rape was less likely to be reported to the police.

Keywords: Male Rape

Holcomb, D.R., Sarvela, P. D., Sondag, K. A., & Holcomb, L. H. (1993). An evaluation of a mixed-gender date rape prevention workshop. Journal of American College Health, 41(4), 159-164.

Used a randomized, posttest-only experimental design (the 25-item Date Rape Attitudes Survey) to compare the date-rape (DRP) attitudes of 163 university students exposed to a mixed-gender DRP workshop with those of 168 students who were not exposed. Three hypotheses were tested, with the following results: (1) men reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those of women (i.e., the men were more likely to condone DRP); (2) Ss in the control group reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those reported by Ss in the treatment group; and (3) men exhibited a greater effect from the program than did women.

Keywords: Evaluation, Male-Female Relations, Prevention

Holcomb, D. R., Sondag, K. A., & Holcomb, L. C. H. (1993). Healthy dating: A mixed-gender date rape workshop. College Health, 41, 155-157.

This article describes a mixed-gender workshop designed to promote interactive discussion and increase awareness on the issue of date rape. A description of the date rape workshop consensual sex scenario and the recommendations for men and women implemented in the workshop are both included. Participants involved included 330 men and 314 women of which only 10.2% of the men and 8.2% of the women stated they were uncomfortable discussing date rape in a mixed-gender setting.

Keywords: College, Curriculum, Evaluation

Isely, P. J., Busse, W., & Isely, P. (1998). Sexual assault of males in late adolescence: A hidden phenomenon. Professional School Counseling, 2(2), 153-160.

Recently a small body of research has shown that adolescent males, 16 yrs of age and older, are at risk of sexual assault. The sexual assault of adolescent males, however, has not been well explored. Much like sexually abused children, these survivors display significant emotional difficulties as a consequence of the sexual assault. An awareness of this type of abuse may assist in the early identification and treatment of this unacknowledged population.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Male Rape

Isely, P. J., & Gehrenbeck-Shim, D. (1997). Sexual assault of men in the community. Journal of Community Psychology, 25(2), 159-166.

This study reports on an attempt to determine the extent of male sexual assault. 172 agencies that work with sexual assault victims reported contact with 3,635 men who had sought treatment for sexual assault. Most assaults occurred between the ages of 16 and 30 and a majority of these men experienced symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Keywords: Effects, Male Rape

Israel, B.A., Cummings, K.M., Dignan, M.B., Heaney, C.A., et al.,(1995). Evaluation of health education programs: Current assessment and future directions. Health Education Quarterly, 22, 364-389.

Discusses evaluation options for health education interventions. Design issues and options are reviewed, and approaches to evaluation are described, emphasizing those shown to be effective Methods and implications for future evaluations are reviewed, and recommendations are provided for evaluation designs, data collection methods, and roles.

Keywords: Evaluation

Johnson, B. B. (1987). Sexual abuse prevention: A rural interdisciplinary effort. Child Welfare, 56(2), 165-173.

A preventative program was designed to prevent child sexual abuse. This four-part program was an interdepartmental collaboration between the social work department and the theater department of the University of South Dakota. The program consisted of community acceptance, training teachers, production of the play "Bubbylonian" Encounter and classroom follow-up. Teachers were trained on the problem of sexual abuse and how to address these issues. The play "Bubbylonian" Encounter was presented with audience participation to teach children about sexual abuse. Social work students and guidance counselors met with the students within one week of the play as a follow-up to the issues raised in the production. Evaluation of the program is suggested.

Keywords: Prevention

Kang, S.T., Magura, S., Laudet, A., & Whitney, S. (1999) Adverse effect of child abuse victimization among substance-using women in treatment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(6), 657-670.

Examined the adverse effect of childhood sexual/physical abuse among 171 substance-abusing women with infants or young children who were admitted to the Family Rehabilitation Program in New York City. Approximately one-half of the women (51%) self reported ever having been sexually (24%) or physically (45%) abused in their childhood. Having a history of childhood abuse experiences, particularly sexual abuse, was associated with various areas of adult life functioning. Approximately 13 mo after program admission, 82% of the sample was recontacted for follow-up. No significant associations were found between childhood abuse experiences and length of retention in services. However, several significant differences in service outcomes between sexually or physically abused women and nonabused women were found. The abused women had significantly more problems relating to drug use and psychiatric/psychological adjustment at follow-up. The findings support a need for substance dependency treatment programs tailored for women who have experienced serious childhood abuse.

Keywords: Survivors, Vulnerability

Kasinsky, R. G. (1998). Tailhook and the construction of sexual harassment in the media: "Rowdy navy boys" and the women who made a difference. Violence Against Women, 4(1), 81-99.

This article examines how the media reported the Tailhook incident from the occurrence of the incident itself through the conclusion of military and congressional debates about its meaning 5 yrs later. The authors state that although the military's cover-up of the incident was interrupted by women in the Senate the media reports paralleled the dominant gender ideology of "boys will be boys" thereby reinforcing the view that sexual harassment is tolerable.

Keywords: Harassment, Myths/Stereotypes, Special Populations

Kershner, R., (1996). Adolescent attitudes about rape. Adolescence, 31, 29-33.

122 high school students were questioned about their attitudes toward rape in order to develop a rape prevention curriculum. Students revealed conservative attitudes about gender roles, rape myths, and victim issues. The study concluded that by focusing on sociocultural aspects of rape, students can learn to identify what nonconsensual sex looks like, reject common myths about rape and rape victims, and endorse a more egalitarian belief system. It is posited that this in turn will lead to a decrease the incidence of rape.

Keywords: Adolescent/Highschool, Curriculum, Myths/Stereotypes

Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1997). A 2-year longitudinal analysis of the relationships between violent assault and substance use in women. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 834-847.

Women experience high levels of physical and sexual assault, the results of which has been theorized to lead to increases in substance use. Evidence from cross-sectional studies also points out that substance use may increase risk of assault. To date the relationship between sexual assault and substance abuse remains unclear. This study reports the results of a 3-wave longitudinal study in which a national sample of 3,006 women were followed for 2 years. Data was collected at each wave of the study and included questions about lifetime and new assault status, alcohol abuse, and drug use.

Keywords: Alcohol, Effects, Vulnerability

Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H. S., Best, C. L., & Schnurr, P. P. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 19-30.

This paper reports the results from the National Survey of Adolescents. The survey, that was funded by the National Institute of Justice, used a probability sample of 4,023 adolescents aged 12-17 who were contacted by telephone about victimization experiences and in addition, their own and their families' substance use. Thirteen percent of female adolescents reported that they had been victims of sexual assault in their lifetime. This finding resulted despite excluding adolescents whose parents did not grant permission for participation, who did not speak English; and/or who resided in institutional settings or households without parents or guardians, and homes lacking telephones, all groups who might be expected to have average or higher rates of sexual assault.

Keywords: Adolescents/High School, Alcohol, Prevalence

Kim, K., Smith P. K., Palermiti, A.-L. (1997). Conflict in Childhood and Reproductive Development, Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 109-142.

Belsky, Steinberg and Draper (1991) hypothesized that a child's first 5 to 7 years in the family serve as a basis for the development of his or her reproductive strategies. It was predicted that stressors in the family environment are associated with late childhood behavioral problems, early onset of puberty. Less discriminate sexual behavior was associated with the early onset of puberty, in girls and boys. The current research includes a cross-sectional self report survey of 380 secondary school students aged 16-19 from southern Italy. This report includes the current research as well as a review of previous research. The population of the current study has more conservative values than those populations of previous studies. Therefore direct comparison is limited.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School

King, M., & Woollett, E. (1997). Sexually assaulted males: 115 men consulting a counseling service. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26(6), 579-588.

Data was collected on 115 male sexual assault victims who were seen at least once for face-to-face counseling. Analysis revealed that 69 men were assaulted prior to age 16. The average time from assault to obtaining counseling services was 16.4 years. 51 men were assaulted more than once. The perpetrator was known to the victim in the majority of cases. 100 respondents were assaulted by one or more men. 88 men did not seek help at the time and only 17 men reported the assault to the police. Victims under the age of 16 who were assaulted, were more likely to report that this was their first sexual experience. Victims under the age of 16 were also more likely to delay contact with counseling and less likely to report to police. Victims assaulted by more than one person were less likely to have experienced the incident as their first sexual experience, more likely to have been assaulted by strangers, and to have suffered physical injuries.

Keywords: Effects, Male Rape

Kopper, B.A. (1996). Gender, gender identity, rape myth acceptance, and time of initial resistance on the perception of acquaintance rape blame and avoidability. Sex Roles, 34, 81-93.

This study investigated the role of gender, rape myth acceptance, and time of initial resistance in assigning blame to the victim, perpetrator, situation and chance following an acquaintance rape, as well as perceived degree of avoidability of the assault. 534 undergraduate students, read one of two acquaintance rape scenarios then completed a set of measures including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, the revised Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, and a demographics questionnaire. Results indicated that acceptance of rape myths and the length of initial resistance determined the assignment of blame and the perception of avoidability of a sexual assault. When resistance occurred early in the encounter, men and women attributed significantly less blame to the victim and situation, more blame to the perpetrator, and were less likely to believe the sexual assault could have been avoided. The hypothesis that those endorsing traditional gender-role types would be more likely to blame the victim following an acquaintance rape was not supported.

Keywords: Myths, Perpetration

Konradi, A., & Burger, T. (2000). Having the last word: An examination of Rape Survivor's participation in sentencing. Violence Against Women, 6, 351-395.

The authors discuss the relationship between victims rights legislation and concerns about women's experiences with rape prosecution? The study is in interview format and focuses on rape survivors discussing both their participation in the criminal justice proceedings and their emotional investment in prosecution. The authors then identify four motivations survivors may have for writing the court and attending or speaking at sentencing. Finally, the authors explain how rape survivors emotional states, prior involvement in court events, and the social support they receive leads them to engage selectively in sentencing activities.

Keywords: Legal Responses, Secondary Victimization

Koss, M. P., (1993). Detecting the scope of rape: A review of prevalence research methods. Special Section: Rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 198-222.

This article reviews rape prevalence research and investigates how differences in methodological approaches may affect the amount of rape detected. Factors such as how the sample is comprised, how an event is labeled, and how questions are phrased are examined. The author also reviews methods of recording, coding, entering and analyzing data to consider when drawing conclusions about the results. The article concludes by providing recommendations for strengthening the design of future studies.

Keywords: Prevalence

Koss, M. P. (1994). The negative impact of crime victimization on women's health and medical use. In Alice J. Dan (Ed.), Reframing women's health: Multidisciplinary research and practice (pp. 189-200) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Primary care physicians are an important resource for women victimized by crime such as rape and domestic violence. However until recently the medical community ignored this line of research. This article analyzes how crime victimization effects health care utilization. Victimization was found to influence the number of physician visits with multiply victimized women visiting physicians twice as much as non-victimized ones. The study also examined a sub-sample of participants whose use of health care could be examined before and after a crime incident. Review of health care records demonstrated that increases in health care usage followed rather than preceded the crime. Five ways victimization may influence health are detailed.

Keywords: Community Attitudes & Response, Effects

Koss, M. P. (1996). The measurement of rape victimization in crime surveys. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 23, 55-69.

This article discusses the limitations of present crime surveys to detect intimate violence. It focuses on problems with, and redesign of, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Methodological problems with the NCVS include the choice of language used in surveys, failed detection of sexual assaults, ambiguity in definitions of sexual assault, and the omission of certain populations, as well as victims under the age of 18, from the survey. Victimization estimates for the United States are compared to Canada who revised their survey to approximate procedures followed in the Violence Against Women Survey. Canadian rates for sexual assault are six times greater than that for the U.S., suggesting that sexual assault is grossly under-detected in the United States.

Keywords: Prevalence, Statistics

Koss, M. P. (2000). Evolutionary models of why men rape: Acknowledging the complexities. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1, 182 - 190.

This article discusses the limitations of Thornhill and Palmer's A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion (2000). The author asserts that the Thornhill and Palmer contrast evolutionary and feminist theories in a manner meant to encourage media attention; that they attempt to present their work as a battle of evolution versus the social sciences; that they present two alternative hypothesis of human rape namely that rape is either a special adaptive strategy, or that it is a by-product of male sexual desire and preference for higher numbers of sexual partners, then fail to address the latter hypothesis. This critique also points out that Thornhill and Palmer make little use of empirical findings from the field of sexual assault research and that the majority of the empirical data challenges their findings. The author specifically disputes a number of Thornhill and Palmer's assertions by pointing out that: 1) many rape victims are children, not women of reproductive age, 2) women of childbearing years have not been shown to experience the most distress post victimization, 3) emotional distress does not vary with the rapist's level of violence, 4) all forms of unwanted penetration is traumatic for women of all ages, and 5) although rapists rarely kill life threat is high. The author also states that Thornhill and Palmer's prevention recommendations are naïve and harmful and concludes that A Natural History of Rape has made it more difficult to advocate for the explanatory role of evolutionary factors in research on violence against women.

Keywords: Male-Female Relations, Perpetration

Koss, M.P. (2000). Blame, shame, and community: Justice responses to violence against women. American Psychologist 55(11), 1332-1343.

The author reviews justice processing for crimes against women. The data indicate that conviction rates for partner violence and rape by known acquaintances are miniscule; protection orders, mandatory arrest, and diversion programs do not adequately deter rebattering; most losses are not compensated; and the adversarial justice process often retraumatizes the rape victim by exacerbating self-blame. The author reports that in order to better address crimes against women, several nations and tribal communities use communitarian approaches, a type of restorative justice. The offense is framed to include the perpetrator, victim, and community. The process forgoes incarceration to have family, peers, and advocates design perpetrator rehabilitation, victim restoration, and social reintegration of both victim and perpetrator. Evaluations suggest communitarian justice may increase victim satisfaction, raise the social costs of offending, multiply social control and support resources, and open a new avenue to targeted prevention.

Keywords: community attitudes and responses, legal responses

Koss, M.P., Cleveland, H.H., (1997). Stepping on toes: Social roots of date rape lead to intractability and politicization. In Martin D. Schwartz (ED.), Researching sexual violence against women: Methodological and personal perspectives (pp. 4-21) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

This article discusses approaches to understanding rape and sexual aggression. The authors contend that rape-supportive environments encourage sexually aggressive men to act on their impulses and discourage women from identifying and reporting experiences of victimization. Coercive beliefs and aggressive behaviors are examined as part of our cultural understanding of sexuality. The authors address why this area of research is politicized, and what this politicization means.

Keywords: College, Male-Female Relations, Risk, Perpetration, Vulnerability

Koss, M. P., & Dinero, T. E. (1989). Discriminant analysis of risk factors for sexual victimization among a national sample of college women. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 57(2), 242-250.

Examined the accuracy with which rape and lesser sexual assaults were predicted among a representative national sample of 2,723 college women. A total of 14 risk variables operationalized three vulnerability hypotheses: (a) vulnerability-creating traumatic experiences, (b) social-psychological vulnerability, and (c) vulnerability-enhancing situations. Each hypothesis was tested individually, and a composite model was developed via discriminant analysis. Only the traumatic experiences variables clearly improved over the base rates in identifying rape victims, but risk variables from each vulnerability hypothesis met criteria for inclusion in the composite model. A risk profile emerged that characterized only 10% of the women, but among them the risk of rape was twice the rate of women without the profile. The concept of traumatic sexualization was used to explain this finding. However, the vast majority of sexually victimized women (75-91%) could not be differentiated from non-victims.

Keywords: College, Risk, Vulnerability

Koss, M. P., Gaines, J. A. (1993). The prediction of sexual aggression by alcohol use, athletic participation, and fraternity affiliation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 8 (1), 94-108.

The objective of the research in this article was to analyze the cooperative effect of alcohol, athletic participation, and fraternity association on sexual aggression among male college students. A sample of 140 college athletes, from a highly ranked university, was taken. These male athletes had all filled out a survey in a college class. The results show that alcohol consumption is the greatest predictor of sexual aggression, followed by nicotine. It was also determined that athletic participation contributed to the effect of sexual aggression, but, was much less a predictor than alcohol. No predictions of fraternity affiliation could be made. Limitations of the study are discussed.

Keywords: Alcohol, Athletes/Fraternities

Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 55(2), 162-170.

Because of inadequacies in the methods used to measure sexual assault, national crime statistics, criminal victimization studies, convictions, or incarceration rates fail to reflect the true scope of rape. Studies that have avoided the limitations of these methods have revealed very high rates of overt rape and lesser degrees of sexual aggression. The goal of the present study was to extend previous work to a national basis. The Sexual Experiences Survey was administered to a national sample of 6,159 women and men enrolled in 32 institutions representative of the diversity of higher education settings across the United States. Women's reports of experiencing and men's reports of perpetrating, attempted rape, sexual coercion, and sexual contact were obtained, including both the rates of prevalence since age 14 and of incidence during the previous year. The findings support published assertions of high rates of rape and other forms of sexual aggression among large normal populations. Although the results are limited in generalizability to postsecondary students, this group represents 26% of all persons aged 18-24 in the United States.

Keywords: College, Perpetration, Prevalence, Statistics

Koss, M.P., Harvey, M.R., (1991). The rape victim: Clinical and community interventions (2nd ed.) Sage Publications, Inc; Newbury Park, CA.

Chapter 1: The Crime of Rape
This chapter focuses on the crime of rape. Legal definitions, frequency, and causes of rape are highlighted. The authors discuss how incidence and prevalence numbers are generated, and the ways statistics are used to maintain the illusion that rape is an infrequent crime. The chapter concludes with an extended discussion of why men rape.

Keywords: Prevalence, Risk, Vulnerability

Chapter 2: The Trauma of Rape
This chapter focuses on the impact of rape, beginning with an ecological model of the response and resolution of rape. This model describes features that determine the distress victim experiences and delineates several long-term outcomes of rape. The systems seen in the aftermath of rape are examined, beginning with clinical observations of the patterns of recovery and progressing to the empirical studies of emotional distress, cognitive patterns, physical symptoms, sexual dysfunctions, and social disruptions. Requirements for formal diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder are reviewed, as well as contemporary models of the psychological processes that create and maintain PTSD symptoms. Suggestions for clinical screening to identify the history of sexual assault are included.

Keywords: Survivors

Chapter 3: Rape as a Community Issue
This chapter discusses the premise that rape is a community issue and that the relationship between victim and community can have a profound effect upon the rape victim's psychological experience and recovery process. The interrelationships that exist among community attitudes, community services, and the psychological experience of the woman raped are examined. Rape as a focal point of social action is considered, and the community as both setting for and target of social change is discussed.

Keywords: Community Attitudes & Responses

Chapter 4: The Rape Crisis Center
This chapter reviews the origins, scope, and impact of the rape crisis center movement. Attention is given to its feminist origins and to the unifying effect of feminist values on the aims, services, and organizational structure of the early and "prototypical" rape crisis center. Through case examples, the impact of the rape crisis center movement on the medical, legal, and mental health practices of traditional public services agencies is discussed. Highly effective, exemplary rape crisis centers are discussed.

Keywords: Rape Crisis Centers

Chapter 5: The Clinical Treatment of Rape Victims
Studies of rape victims suggest that relatively few seek professional help immediately after a rape, attempting instead to cope with rape on their own. However, results of one study indicated that up to 48% of victims eventually sought help for rape-related concerns. This chapter discusses four clinical interventions utilized to treat victims: a single-session trauma debriefing procedure for recent rape victims; an individual integrative treatment for victims who seek therapy months or years after their assault; intervention as group treatment; and public education designed to reach a large group of victims who do not seek formal services. A section on the challenges of working with rape victims is included.

Keywords: Rape Crisis Centers

Chapter 6: Group Treatment for Survivors
In the course of their recovery, many rape victims will turn to rape crisis centers, women's advocacy centers, or a mental health facility for support and assistance. Increasingly, group support is used in these settings. This chapter reviews a wide range of group treatment models and considers their usefulness for rape victims whose psychological status, needs, and circumstances vary. Indices of recovery and resolution are described, in relationship to those attributes that most group treatment approaches share, and in terms of the means by which specific group models might address specific recovery issues.

Keywords: Survivors

Chapter 7: Preventing Sexual Assault
Rape prevention is an organizing theme in the sexual assault field. Virtually all community based rape crisis centers and anti-rape projects at local, regional, or national levels sponsor rape prevention initiatives. This chapter examines preventive initiatives in the sexual assault field and touches on activities directed toward each of these goals. Primary attention is given to activities that promote rape elimination through public education, social change, and rape avoidance through competence-building, risk-awareness and self defense training.

Keywords: Community Attitudes & Responses, Prevention

Koss, M.P., Heise, L., Russo, N.F., (1994). The Global Health Burden of Rape. Special Issue: Transformations: Reconceptualizing theory and research with women. Psychology of Women, 18, 509-537.

Rape is no longer viewed exclusively from a criminal justice framework, implications for women's health are also considered. The health burden of rape is investigated cross-culturally, focusing on its prevalence and psychological, sociocultural, somatic and reproductive health consequences. Cross-cultural differences between normative and non-normative rape are explored. Problems such as the difficulties associated with collecting valid and reliable data, women's reluctance to report rape, and failure to accurately assess the aftereffects of rape are discussed. Conclusions focus on how research can improve the physical and mental health of women worldwide.

Key words: Effects, Prevalence, Statistics

Krulewitz, J.E., Kahn, A.S. (1983). Preferences for rape reduction strategies. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 7, 301-312.

Female and male subjects holding pro-feminist and non-feminist attitudes rated the desirability and expected effectiveness of four anti-rape strategies, which varied according to locus of responsibility for reducing rape and the aggressiveness of the strategy. Sex, sex-role attitudes, responsibility for reducing rape, and the aggressiveness of strategies were examined. It was found that attitude toward sex roles was a more pervasive determinant of patterns of perceived effectiveness and desirability than was subject sex.

Keywords: Avoidance/Resistance

Kuecker, T. (1998). An analysis of statewide sexual assault service providers. Violence and Intentional Injury Prevention Program, 1(1).(5 pages).

This report is a survey conducted by the Michigan Sexual Assault Surveillance System (SASS) as part of the Violence and Intentional Injury Prevention Program (VI2P2). It was conducted for the purpose of assessing how agencies and service providers who come into contact with survivors of sexual assault collect and manage their data. The surveillance aspect of the SASS involves focusing on issues such as incidence, prevalence, morbidity, mortality, and economic costs of sexual violence. This report outlines the responses of 69 of the 148 agencies and service providers contacted by the SASS team. Results show that more than two-thirds of the agencies surveyed have a systematic method for collecting data on sexual assault. However, only one-third of these agencies had access to E-mail or other Internet services and less than a third of them were judged to be technologically behind current standards. The SASS team created a website for the agencies which can assist them in accessing sexual assault data and SASS briefing reports.

Keywords: Evaluation, Prevalence

Kuhn, J. A., Arellano, C. M., Chavez, E. L. (1998). Correlates of sexual assault in Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent males. Violence & Victims, 13(1), 11-20.

Psychosocial and emotional variables were assessed in for a sample of 1,385 Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent males. Out of all those sampled 54 males reported being sexually assaulted one or more times. Adolescent male victims were on average more socially isolated, emotionally distressed, and socially maladjusted (e.g., they exhibited more behaviors such as lying and stealing). These males were also more likely to affiliate with deviant peers, and to come from homes with substance use, compared to males who not reporting sexual assault. Significant differences between Mexican American and White non-Hispanic assault victims were not found.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Male Rape, Racial and Ethnic Differences

Lalumiere, M. L., Chalmers, L.J., Quinsey, V. L., Seto, M.C. (1996). A Test of the Mate Deprivation Hypothesis of Sexual Coercion. Ethology and Social Biology 17, 299-318.

The mate deprivation hypothesis states that males who have more limited access to mates are more likely to resort to sexual coercion. This study uses a sample of 156 undergraduate college males from a Canadian University to test this hypothesis. Access to mates was indexed and sexual coercion was rated using Koss's sexual experiences survey. The results did not support the hypothesis. Sexually coercive males had (nonsignificantly) higher perceived mating success and significantly more sexual experience. The limitations of this study are addressed and further study and analyses suggested.

Keywords: Male-Female Relations, Perpetration

Lalumiere, M. L., Quinsey, V.L.(1994). The discriminability of rapists from non-sex offenders using phallometric measures: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 21(1), 150-175.

The meta-analysis presented in this article was conducted in an effort to determine if there is a difference between rapists and non-sex offenders using phallometric measures. Possible variables were sought to determine the degree to which the rapists and non-sex offenders are distinguishable. The findings show that rapists respond more to brutal and graphic rape cues and non-sex offenders respond to cues of consenting sex. The limitations of this study are discussed.

Keywords: Perpetration, Risk

Lanier, C. A. & Elliot, M. N. (1997). A new instrument for the evaluation of a date rape prevention program. Journal of College Student Development, 38(6), 673-676.

This article presents the results of a study of a new behavior scale designed specifically to evaluate the efficacy of date rape prevention programs. The sample included 436 college students who filled-out the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (CDRABS). The survey contains 20 questions addressing attitudes and 7 questions addressing behaviors, all of which pertain to heterosexual date rape on campuses. Women had lower rape-supportive attitudes than men suggesting convergent validity of this scale with other measures of rape-supportive attitudes. Significant correlations between certain attitude and behavior items indicate that the attitude scale may be predictive of rape-supportive behavior among men as well as predictive of women's self-reported high risk behaviors given certain attitudes towards sexual activity among the women. The authors propose that the CDRABS may be useful for measuring students' initial attitudes and behaviors as well as serving as an instrument in the evaluation of date rape prevention programs designed to enhance awareness of date rape prevention.

Keywords: College, Evaluation, Male-Female Relations, Prevention, Risk

Lanier, C.A., Elliott, M. N., Martin, D. W., & Kapadia, A. (1998). Evaluation of an intervention to change attitudes toward date rape. Journal of American College Health, 46(4), 177-180.

Describes use of a less violent theatrical production based on social learning theory and risk-factor reduction that resulted in a significant improvement in attitudes related to date rape among 436 17-19 yr old male and female university students. A randomized pretest and posttest control group design was used to asses attitude change. Each group was given a pretest, viewed a play (intervention or control play), and responded to a posttest questionnaire. Results show that Ss who viewed the intervention play showed evidence of a modest improvement in attitudes toward date rape compared with control Ss. Change in attitudes demonstrated by the Ss who saw the intervention play suggests that the play was an effective intervention for both males and females. It is concluded that one can use social learning theory to design effective interventions for preventing date rape.

Keywords: Evaluation, Prevention

Lenihan, G.O., & Rawlins, M. E. (1994). Rape supportive attitudes among Greek students before and after a date rape prevention program. Journal of College Student Development, 35(6), 450-455.

In addition to the assessment of supportive attitudes of sorority and fraternity members, this article evaluated a mandatory date rape education program, drawing comparisons with a non-Greek organization group that had been studied earlier. A total of 636 male and female Greek organization students participated, compared to 821 non-Greek organization students who served as controls. Greek organization subjects completed the Rape Supportive Attitudes Survey (RSAS) before and after the program. Control Ss had taken the RSAS 2 yrs earlier without any education program. Greek organization students registered more desirable baseline scores than non-Greeks on the RSAS, but showed no change as a result of the education program.

Keywords: Athletes/Fraternities, Prevention

Linz, D., Wilson, B. J., Donnerstein, E. (1992). Sexual Violence in the Mass Media: Legal Solutions, Warnings, and Mitigation Through Education. Journal of Social Issues, 48.

Adolescent exposure to violence in the mass media may result in detrimental societal effects. Research suggests that exposure to violent materials, whether or not they are sexually explicit, results in less sensitivity toward victims of sexual violence. Three solutions to the problem are addressed. The solution of strengthening the obscenity laws was found to be ineffective because the laws focus on sexual explicitness and not violence. The film rating system was also found to be ineffective because it is found to be inconsistent with social science research on the effects of sexual violence. Finally the solution that holds the most promise is educational interventions directed to changing beliefs about rape and sexual violence. A program is presented that is based on prior research with college students.

Keywords: Adolescent, Community Attitudes & Responses

Lira, L. R., Koss, M. P., & Russo, N. F. (1999). Mexican American women's definitions of rape and sexual abuse. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21(3), 236-265.

This paper addresses the concept of rape from the perspective of Mexican American immigrant women living in America. It begins with an overview of cultural meanings of rape and sexual abuse and the impact thereof within an appreciation of cultural differences affected by religious norms, images of women, and notions of sexuality among Latinas. The study presented in this paper involved 17 Mexican American women living in Arizona who participated in four focus groups. Their discussions focused on issues pertaining to unwanted sexual contact. Definitions elicited from these discussions included notions of "rapto," "violacion,"and "abuso sexual." Furthermore, the women discussed child rape and abuse, adult rape and abuse, the causes of rape, wife rape, the causes of wife rape, and ultimately, the silence of victims. The intermingling of traditional and modern meanings of such concepts should not be underestimated nor easily overlooked when addressing the issue of rape among Latinas. Research, prevention, intervention, and treatment programs must therefore be sensitive towards culturally appropriate approaches to this issue and must be mindful of the language used to express the various experiences and perceptions in order to gage an accurate assessment of the prevalence of rape among Latinas. Due to the significance of silence and the rape experiences reported by the participants, it is very likely that underreporting is a grave reality among Latinas.

Keywords: Male-Female Relations, Marital Rape, Racial and Ethnic Differences, Underserved Populations

Lisak, D., & Ivan, C. (1995). Deficits in intimacy and empathy in sexually aggressive men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(3), 296-308.

This article focus of this article is to test three hypotheses about the gender socialization of sexually aggressive men. Two studies are presented that compare non-aggressive men to sexually aggressive men. The first study uses a sample of 15 self-reported rapists and 15 control subjects. The second study uses a sample of 198 undergraduate students. The findings support “gender-socialization” theory, that men who reject “feminine” attributes will also be likely to reject intimacy and increase the likelihood of acting out aggressively toward women.

Keywords: Male/Female Relations, Risk

Lisak, D., & Roth, S. (1988). Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexually aggressive men. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 55(5), 795-802.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether some of the factors that underlie power and anger motivations in convicted rapists are also applicable to self-reported sexually aggressive men. The subjects of this experiment were 184 junior and senior men enrolled in various psychology classes who completed the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire. The findings show that some of the factors that underlie the anger and power motivations of convicted rapists may also be applicable to non-incarcerated sexually aggressive college men. Future research is suggested.

Keywords: Perpetration, Risk

Lonsway, K.A. (1996). Preventing acquaintance rape through education: What do we know? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 229-265.

Reviews current approaches to rape prevention education focusing on methods such as, promoting participant communication, challenging rape myths, providing education on sexuality, and avoiding confrontation. Practical and theoretical issues regarding previous sexual victimization, perpetration, use of outcome measures, program facilitation, and processes underlying change in rape-supportive attitudes are discussed. Research must deal with these issues so that effective rape prevention can become a reality.

Keywords: Curriculum, Prevention

Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(2), 133-164.

Offers a theory-based definition of rape myths (RMs), and reviews and critiques the literature on RM acceptance. RMs are attitudes and generally false beliefs about rape that are widely and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women. Acceptance of RMs has been assessed in relation to demographics, education levels, adversarial sexual beliefs, attitudes toward women, self-esteem and assertiveness, and experience of sexual aggression, in addition to other variables. Despite extensive research, definitions, terminology, and measures of RM acceptance continue to lack adequate precision. It is argued, nevertheless, that this type of research has immense potential for the understanding of sexual assault. Such work must include the development and application of improved measures, with more concern for the theoretical and methodological issues unique to this field.

Keywords: Myths and Stereotypes

Lonsway, K.A., Klaw, E.L., Berg, D.R., Waldo, C.R., Kothari C., (1998). Beyond No Means No. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13 (1), 73-92.

This study examined the effects of an intensive rape education program. Undergraduate participants enrolled in a semester long university course titled "Campus Acquaintance Rape Education" (CARE) which was designed to train peer facilitators to conduct rape education workshops. This group was compared to students enrolled in a general human sexuality course. Quantitative analysis of pre and post-course responses suggest that comprehensive attitude change occurred for students in CARE but not for those in the human sexuality course. Follow up investigations conducted 2 years after course participation revealed that CARE students were still less accepting of cultural rape myths than those in the human sexuality class. The authors suggest that sex education will be insufficient to prevent rape unless explicit attention is paid to issues of both gender inequality and sexual violence.

Keywords: Curriculum, Evaluation, Prevention

Lottes, I. L., & Kuriloff, P. J. (1994). Sexual socialization differences by gender, Greek membership, ethnicity, and religious background. Psychology of Women Quarterly 18(2), 203-219.

Examined how parental and peer sexual socialization influences are related to gender, ethnicity, religious background, and college membership in a fraternity or sorority. A sample of 557 college students (52% male, 48% female), including 76% White, 13% Asian, and 7% Black Ss, completed questionnaires both as entering 1st-yr students and as seniors. Compared to women, men continued to experience a more permissive sexual socialization from both parents and peers. Fraternity and sorority membership was associated with a more permissive socialization from peers but not parents. Asian students reported a more restrictive sexual socialization than Blacks or Caucasians. With respect to religious background, there were no significant differences in peer sexual socialization; however, Jewish Ss reported a significantly more permissive parental sexual socialization than Catholic and Protestant Ss.

Keywords: Athletes/Fraternities, Racial/Ethnic Differences

Magley, V. J., Waldo, C.R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F (1999). The impact of sexual harassment on military personnel: Is it the same for men and women? Military Psychology, 11(3), 283-302.

This study compared outcomes of sexual harassment for men and women utilizing data from the US Department of Defense's (1995) gender issues survey. 22,372 female and 5,924 male service members responded to 23 of 26 Sexual Experiences Questionnaire--Department of Defense items which were used to measure sexual harassment. Results indicate that women were more likely to experience sexually harassment than men. Results also indicated that women almost always experienced sexual harassment from men while men were somewhat more likely to experience sexual harassment from other men. Overall sexual harassment is more impactful for women. The results also indicated that in those cases where the experiences are similar, males and females have comparable psychological, health, and job-related outcomes.

Keywords: Effects, Harassment, Male-Female Relations, Underserved Populations

Mahoney, P. (1999). High rape chronicity and low rates of help-seeking among wife rape survivors in a nonclinical sample: Implications for research and practice. Violence Against Women, 5(9), 993-1016.

The authors analyzed sexual assault chronicity and help-seeking behaviors among 201 survivors (aged 18+ yrs) of marital (n = 37), acquaintance (n = 109), and stranger sexual assault (n= 55), utilizing National Crime Victimization Survey data. They found that marital sexual assault survivors were significantly more likely than acquaintance and stranger survivors to experience multiple assaults, with many marital survivors experiencing more than 10 assaults in a 6-mo period. The marital group was also less likely to seek medical, police, or agency help. The authors conclude by discussing the implications for research and practice generated by these data.

Keywords: Marital Rape, Survivors, Treatment

Malamuth, N.M., Addison, T., & Koss, M. (2000). Pornography and Sexual Aggression: Are There Reliable Effects and Can We Understand Them? Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, 26-91.

The authors are responding to recent critiques of their work. Their responses delineate the arguments and data presented in those commentaries; integrate the findings of several metaanalytic summaries of experimental and naturalistic research; and statistically analyze a large representative sample. The responses support the existence of reliable associations between frequent pornography use and sexually aggressive behaviors, particularly for violent pornography and/or for men at high risk for sexual aggression. The authors suggest that relatively aggressive men interpret and react to the same pornography differently than do nonaggressive men. This perspective can help to integrate the current analyses with studies comparing rapists and nonrapists as well as with cross-cultural research.

Keywords: Perpetration, Risk, Statistics

Malamuth, N. M., Linz, D., Heavey, C. L., Barnes, G. et al.(1995). Using the confluence model of sexual aggression to predict men's conflict with women: A 10-year follow-up study. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69(2), 353-369.

The research presented in this article analyzes some of the characteristics of men who are likely to engage in sexual aggression. Sexual aggression is divided into two potential types, hostile masculinity and promiscuous-impersonal. The sample consisted of a group of men who were studied, through self-reports, in early adulthood and then subsequently studied, also through self-reports, 10 years later. Some of the female partners of these men were also questioned. Using the confluence model of sexual aggression it was determined that several variables can be identified as contributing to men’s sexual aggression and other conflicts with women. Future research is discussed.

Keywords: Male-Female Relations, Risk

Malamuth, N.M., Sockloskie, R. J., Koss, M. P., & Tanaka, J. S. (1991). Characteristics of aggressors against women: Testing a model using a national sample of college students. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 59(5), 670-681.

The authors studied the characteristics of college men (N = 2,652) who demonstrated sexual, nonsexual, or combined sexual and nonsexual aggression toward women. According to a structural equation model, hostile childhood experiences affect involvement in delinquency, leading to aggression through 2 paths: (1) hostile attitudes and personality, resulting in coercion both in sexual and nonsexual interactions and (2) sexual promiscuity, which, in interaction with hostility, produces sexual aggression. Sexual and nonsexual coercion were also hypothesized to share a common underlying factor. Although its development was guided by integrating previous theory and research, the initial model was refined in half of the sample and later replicated in the 2nd half. It fit the data well in both halves as well as in a separate replication using a sample containing data on sexual aggression only.

Keywords: Perpetration, Statistics

Malamuth, N. M., & Thornhill, N. W. (1994). Hostile masculinity, sexual aggression, and gender-biased domineeringness in conversations. Aggressive Behavior Special Issue: Aggression, gender and sex: Psychosocial and psychobiological studies in humans and animals, 20(3), 185-193.

Assessed the ability of certain variables to predict which men would be more domineering in conversations with a woman and/or with a man. The variables included men's self-reported sexually aggressive behavior and several components comprising a personality profile labeled "Hostile Masculinity." Data from 67 male undergraduates indicate these variables successfully predicted domineering behavior toward the female but not toward the male. Findings support theories hypothesizing that men's desire to control women and men's antisocial behavior toward them are due to specific rather than to general factors.

Keywords: Harassment

Mantak, F. J. (1995). Creating an alternative framework for preventing rape: Applying Haddon's injury prevention strategies. Journal of Public Health Policy, Spring.

This paper reviews current literature on injury prevention and rape. It defines the hazard involved in rape and applies Haddon's model, a host-agent-environment model of classic epidemiology, in order to present a broader foundation for rape prevention. This paper focuses on heterosexual rape. Rape is not treated as an injury itself, separate from any accompanying physical injury. These studies also focus on the behavior of the victim and exclude the behavior of the perpetrator. Haddon's injury prevention strategies to rape emphasize sociocultural factors and perpetrator, not victim responsibility. These strategies have been divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary phases of prevention.

Keywords: Effects, Prevention

Marques, J.K. (1999). How to answer the question "Does sexual offender treatment work?" Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(4), 437-451.

Asserts that although sex offender treatment is an established clinical specialty, evidence regarding its effectiveness has been slow to accumulate. One ongoing treatment outcome study, California's Sex Offender Treatment and Evaluation Project, is used to highlight several problems that are inherent in this type of research, and to illustrate that even well-designed studies make only a limited contribution to the empirical database on treatment effectiveness. The findings from this study are also used to show that the broad question, "Does sex offender treatment work?" needs to be broken down into a number of more specific and useful questions. Given the diversity of clients and programs in this field, outcome data are from a wide range of treatment programs that vary in approach, setting, intensity, and types of offenders treated. Program managers and clinicians are urged to evaluate the impact of their services in order to contribute to our knowledge base on treatment effectiveness.

Keywords: Treatment

Marx, B. P., Miranda, Jr., R., & Meyerson, L. A. (1999). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for rapists: Can we do better? Clinical Psychology Review, 19(7), 875-894.

This article provides an overview of current cognitive-behavioral treatment strategies being used with sexual offenders and addresses the specific reasons why such treatments present limited success. Current strategies emphasize control of deviant sexual arousal, modification of cognitive distortions, skills training, biological treatments, and relapse prevention. Adult rapists differ from other sexual offenders (i.e. child sex offenders) on various dimensions. For example, the behavior of rapists can range from unsolicited verbal behavior to brutal sexual assaults. Other sex offenders usually do not display such variety in behavior. Consequently, the heterogeneity among them needs to be addressed in treatment strategies as well. Physiological, emotional, and cognitive states contribute towards sexually deviant behavior in a complex response pattern and not necessarily as individual causative factors. That kind of approach is too simplistic. Furthermore, the functional differences in the behavior of rapists is rarely examined and should provide a focus for treatment as well. That authors conclude by proposing an idiographic approach to treatment that implements a functional analysis to inform treatment protocol, promotes psychological acceptance, and addresses characterological and interpersonal issues during treatment.

Keywords: Perpetration, Treatment

Mayall, A., & Gold, S. R. (1995). Definitional issues and mediating variables in the sexual revictimization of women sexually abused as children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(1), 26-42.

Studied the effect of using 3 different definitions of child sexual abuse (CSA) and 3 definitions of adult sexual assault (ASA) on revictimization rates. Ss were 654 female undergraduates (aged 17-36 yrs). Definitions of CSA varied in the degree of contact; definitions of ASA varied in degree of contact and force used. Variables hypothesized to mediate the rate of revictimization included parental support, attributional style, coping style, severity of abuse, and involvement in psychotherapy. Contact forms of CSA were associated with significant rates of revictimization, although non-contact CSA was not associated with revictimization. Revictimized women could not be discriminated from non-revictimized women based on the proposed mediating variables. Level of adult sexual experience was the best predictor of ASA. A high level of sexual activity is proposed as the link between CSA and ASA.

Keywords: Risk, Vulnerability

McCall, G. J. (1993). Risk factors and sexual assault prevention. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8(2), 277-295.

The author asserts that sexual assault prevention programming has little scientific underpinning, and is thus scattered and incoherent in its development. This situation reflects general policy biases against sexuality-related interventions as well as "merely preventive" programs. The author argues that an ambiguity of societal vision has undermined the cause of sexual assault prevention. Sexual assault prevention suffers because it fully fits neither the traditional crime-prevention model nor the traditional public-health model of prevention programming. The author traces the technical and political consequences of this fundamental ambiguity, giving consideration to a transcendental alternative model.

Keywords: Prevention, Risk

McCann, I. L., & Pearlman, L.A. (1990). Vicarious traumatization: A framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3(1), 131-149.

Presents a new constructivist self-development theory for understanding therapists' reactions to clients' traumatic material. This theory is contrasted with previous conceptualizations such as burnout and counter-transference. The phenomenon termed "vicarious traumatization" can be understood as related both to the graphic and painful material that trauma clients often present and to the therapist's unique cognitive schemata or beliefs, expectations, and assumptions about self and others. Therapists may experience disruptions in their schemata of dependency, safety, power, independence, esteem, intimacy, and/or frame of reference. Ways that therapists can transform and integrate clients' traumatic material in order to provide the best services to clients, as well as to protect themselves against serious harmful effects, are discussed.

Keywords: Secondary Victimization

McCaughey, M. & King, N. (1995). Rape education videos: Presenting mean women instead of dangerous men. Teaching Sociology, 23, 374-388.

This paper addresses two methods of rape prevention education that employ videos. The first focuses on "dangerous men" by presenting students with visual examples of male brutality against women in which women are depicted as vulnerable, weak, and overpowered. While disturbing and perhaps capable of inciting awareness of violence against women, they may also contribute towards promoting certain stereotypes concerning male physical strength and female weakness and submission. The second type of video - and the one analysed in this study - draws upon scenes from movies wherein women are depicted as powerful, armed, and aggressive. Based on students' reactions to this type of video, depictions of aggressive women destabilize men's sense of physical power and replace that confidence with the realization that women have the potential for an alternative response to violence against them.

Keywords: College, Curriculum, Male-Female Relations, Prevention

McFarlane, J. , Willson, P., Lemmey, D., & Malecha, A. (2000). Women filing assault charges on an intimate partner: Criminal justice outcome and future violence experienced. Violence Against Women, 6(4), 396-408.

The authors interviewed 90 women (aged 19-59 yrs) with 6 month follow-up. In order to describe the criminal justice outcomes and violence experienced after women seek to file assault charges against an intimate partner, questionnaires were administered at the time of filing charges, as well as at 3 and 6 months post-filing. The questionnaires measured threats of violence, physical assault, stalking, and danger. 48% of the women had insufficient evidence for charges; of those making charges, 11% dropped charges, 37% of the perpetrators were arrested, and 4% of perpetrators remained fugitives. With the exception of danger at 3 months, levels of violence did not differ by charges accepted or perpetrator arrested at 3 and 6 months. The study indicated that for this cohort of 90 women, filing assault charges against an intimate partner was a powerful deterrent to future violence, whether or not the charges were accepted or the offender was arrested.

Keywords: Legal Responses, Stalking

McKenzie, K.; Matheson, E.; McKaskie, K.; Patrick, S.; Paxton, D.; Michie, A.; Murray, G. C. (2001). Health and social care staff responses to working with people with a learning disability who display sexual offending type behaviors. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 7(1), 56-66.

This study suggests that a large number of health and social care staff in community homes are currently supporting clients with learning disabilities and sexual offending type behaviors. Most common types of offenses, areas of difficulty, and staff's feelings towards clients are measured. Both groups, health care and social care staff, reported insufficient knowledge and lack of training in working with sex offenders. A high number of health and social care staff identified the need for training, professional input, assessment, and therapeutic interventions. (posted 12/18/2002)

Keywords: Treatment, Community Responses

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., Hervig, L. K., Gold, S. R., Rosswork, S. G., & Thornton, S. R. (1998). Prevalence of premilitary adult sexual victimization and aggression in a navy recruit sample. Military Medicine, 163, 209-212.

This article addresses the need for identifying, treating, educating, and preventing sexual assault among military recruits based on a survey of 3,776 US Navy recruits. Results from the survey revealed that 45.5% of the women had experienced attempted rape (9.4%) or completed rape (36.1%) prior to joining the Navy. Of the male recruits, 14.8% admitted committing attempted (3.5%) or completed rape (11.3%) prior to joining the Navy. Since sexual assault victims are likely to require psychological and/or physical treatment by health care providers and male perpetrators are likely to re-offend, it is crucial that the military address these issues among recruits so that intervention and prevention are possible.

Keywords: Prevalence, Prevention, Risk

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Thomsen, C. J., Gold, S. R., Milner, J.S., Koss, M. P., & Rosswork, S. G. (1999). Childhood abuse and sexual revictimization in a female Navy recruit sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(2), 211-225.

The authors surveyed 1,887 female Navy recruits in order to examine the effects of childhood abuse on adult rape. A total of 35% of recruits had been raped and 57% had experienced childhood physical abuse (CPA) and/or childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Controlling for CPA, rape was significantly (4.8 times) more likely among women who had experienced CSA than among women who had not. In contrast, CPA (controlling for CSA) was unrelated to likelihood of adult rape. The authors included alcohol problems and number of sex partners as mediators in their models. Although both variables predicted rape, their effects were independent of the effects of CSA. Finally, despite ethnic group differences in the prevalence of victimization, the predictors of rape did not differ significantly across ethnic groups.

Keywords: Risk, Prevalence, Survivors

Messman, T.L., & Long, P.J. (1996). Child sexual abuse and its relationship to revictimization in adult women: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 16(5), 397-420.

Reviews the theoretical positions that have been formulated to account for revictimization in women, examines the literature available concerning revictimization both in the form of adult sexual and physical assault, and considers impact of revictimization on women's later adjustment. Research in the area reveals that women who were sexually abused as children are significantly more likely to experience abuse as adults as compared to women who have not had such an experience in childhood. Several theoretical models have been suggested to account for the revictimization phenomena. Conclusions about the state of the literature are discussed, and clinical and research implications are examined.

Keywords: Survivors, Treatment, Vulnerability

Moffitt, T. E. & Caspi, A. (1999). Findings about partner violence from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief, 1-12.

This report summarizes the results of a study conducted on a birth cohort of 1,037 men and women born in New Zealand between April 1, 1972 and March 31, 1973. The Dunedin researchers focused on partner violence as a potential example of antisocial behavior during childhood and teenage delinquency carried over into adulthood. Results of the study revealed that partner violence is associated with risk factors in childhood and adolescence involving poverty and low academic achievement for men and harsh family discipline and parental discord for women. Mental illness was present among 65% of females exposed to physical abuse and among 88% of the male perpetrators. The strongest risk factor for male and female perpetrators of partner violence involved a history of physically aggressive behavior prior to the age of 15 years. The findings from this study suggest that three intervention tactics are necessary to reduce partner violence in adulthood. The first needs to teach teenagers to avoid using violence against their partners. The second strategy involves interventions with young parents to reduce their stress and subsequently the potential for exposure of their children to violence within the home. Lastly, given the findings that perpetrators of partner violence tend to be mentally ill and engage in other violent crimes, intervention needs to draw upon the interaction of law enforcement, the judicial system, and the mental health profession.

Keywords: Male-Female Relations, Marital Rape, Risk, Statistics

Molidor C., Tolman R.M., (1998). Gender and Contextual Factors in Adolescent Dating Violence. Violence Against Women, 4, 180-194.

Six hundred and thirty five high school students were surveyed about the frequency, severity, and reaction to dating violence they had experienced. Although the overall frequency of violence did not differ by gender, females reported higher levels of severe violence, more severe physical outcomes, and greater levels emotional distress in response to their experience with dating violence. This study also indicated that almost half of all dating violence occurs on school grounds. High school students who experienced dating violence were more likely to disclose the incident to their peers, if they told anyone. This study also indicated that while the frequency of violence was the same between genders, the predictors and severity of violence differed between them. The authors discuss implications for intervention.

Keywords: Adolescent/High School, Effects, Prevalence, Prevention

Monson, C.M., Byrd, G.R., Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., (1996). To have and to hold: Perceptions of marital rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11(3), 410-424.

This study investigated differences in societal perceptions of marital versus stranger rape. The researchers were specifically interested in how sex role socialization affects perceptions of marital rape, and whether there were gender differences in perceptions. Subjects rated their reactions to one of two hypothetical rape scenarios that differed only in the identification of the man as the woman's husband or as a stranger. Sex role expectations and rape supportive beliefs were assessed. Individuals were found to minimize the seriousness of rape perpetrated by a husband rather than by a stranger. However, female subjects were found to hold less strong rape-supportive beliefs than men, suggesting that women perceive rape as a more serious, violent, violating and psychologically damaging event regardless of the relationship between the victim and perpetrator.

Keywords: Marital Rape

Monto, M.A., & Hotaling N. (2001). Predictors of Rape Myth Acceptance Among Male Clients of Female Street Prostitutes. Violence Against Women, 7(3), 275-293.

There has been surprisingly little research on male clients of female street prostitutes, despite the fact that such women frequently experience violence. In this study, the authors explore "rape myth acceptance" and its predictors among 1,286 men arrested for soliciting street prostitutes in San Francisco (n = 950), Las Vegas (n = 254), and Portland, Oregon (n = 82). Rape myths were defined as attitudes believed to support sexual violence against women. Arrested clients filled out survey questionnaires prior to their participation in programs designed to discourage recidivism. Results indicate low levels of rape myth acceptance among respondents in general, although a few expressed higher levels. Regression analysis showed that the strongest predictors of rape myth acceptance were attraction to violent sexuality, sexual conservatism, and thinking about sex less frequently.

Keywords: Myths & Stereotypes, Underserved Populations

Muehlenhard, C. L., Friedman, D. E., Thomas, C.M. (1985). Is date rape justifiable? The effects of dating activity, who initiated, who paid, and men's attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9(3),

This article focuses on how date rape can be rated justifiable, by male undergraduate students, based on the circumstances. Two studies are presented in this article in which male undergraduate students are given various written vignettes about the date of two characters. Rape was rated as more justifiable if the couple went to his apartment, if the woman rather than the man initiated the date and when the man paid for the date. The implications of these results are discussed, as are suggestions for further study.

Keywords: College, Male/Female Relations

Muehlenhard, C.L., Linton, M.A., (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 186-196.

This study assessed the incidence of and risk factor for date rape and other forms of male-against female sexual aggression in dating situations. Results showed that 77.6% of the women and 57.3% of the men had been involved in some form of sexual aggression. Risk factors include the man's initiating the date, paying all the expenses, and driving, miscommunication about sex; heavy alcohol or drug use; "parking", men's acceptance of traditional sex roles, interpersonal violence, adversarial attitudes about relationships, and rape myths. The length of time that dating partners have known each other seems unrelated to the risk of sexual assault. The authors discuss implications of their findings for rape-prevention programs.

Keywords: Alcohol, Prevalence, Risk, Statistics

Muehlenhard, C. L., Kimes, L. A. (1999). The social construction of violence: The case of sexual and domestic violence. Personality & Social Psychology Review Special Issue: Perspectives on evil and violence, 3(3), 234-245.

What counts as "violence" is socially constructed, has varied over time, and reflects power relationships. Informed by social constructionism, the authors illustrate these points using as examples sexual violence and domestic violence. The authors review changes in how society and social scientists have defined and understood these topics during the last 30 yrs. They then discuss 3 areas of continuing controversy: who should decide if sexual or domestic violence has occurred, what to count as sexual and domestic violence, and the role of gender in defining sexual and domestic violence.

Keywords: Theory

Mullen, P. E., Pathe, M., Purcell, R., & Stuart, G. W. (1999). Study of stalkers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(8), 1244-1249.

Described behaviors, motivations, and psychopathology of 145 stalkers who were referred to a forensic psychiatry center for treatment. The majority of the stalkers were men (79%) Many stalkers were unemployed (39%), and 52% had never been in an intimate relationship. Victims included ex-partners (30%), professional or work contacts (34%), and strangers (14%) Five types of stalkers are described: rejected, intimacy seeking, incompetent, resentful, and predatory. Delusional disorders were common (30%), especially among intimacy-seeking stalkers, although those with personality disorders predominate among rejected stalkers. The duration of stalking behaviors was from 4 weeks to 20 years with the longest duration found with rejected and intimacy-seeking stalkers. Sixty-three percent of the stalkers made threats, and thirty-six percent were assaultive. Threats and property damage tended to be more frequent with resentful stalkers, and rejected and predatory stalkers committed more assaults.

Keywords: Risk, Stalking

Mustaine, E.E., & Tewksbury, R. (1999). A Routine Activity Theory Explanation for Women's Stalking Victimizations Violence Against Women, 5, 43-62.

This article presents a routine activity theory model for predicting stalking victimization likelihood for women. Surveys administered to 861 university women in nine institutions were examined. Using routine activity theory, the model highlights lifestyle behaviors and interactions as predictors of stalking victimization. While routine activity theory typically highlights the role of demographics and status as predictors of victimization, this analysis emphasizes the role of women's social interactions and substance use in victimization risk. Significant predictors of victimization likelihood include substance use variables, activities in public settings, and residence off campus.

Keywords: College, Stalking

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