My intent is to create a book on media literacy with links to locations and articles (sites and cites) relevant to that subject. Some of the best and/or most useful provenances I have found are The Center for Media Literacy, The Media Education Foundation and The New Mexico Literacy Project. Media/Media Literacy. Time spent with these resources will provide hundreds more links to other media literacy venues.


The possibilities may appear to be endless, but fortunately they are not.

As for a definition of the subject, the Center for Media Literacy provides this view: ML is "the ability to communicate competently in all media forms, print and electronic, as well as access, understand, analyze and evaluate the powerful images, words and sounds that make up our contemporary mass media culture. The skills of media literacy are essential to our health as individuals and as members of a democratic society."

I like this Canadian definition which seems to appreciate the benefits of integrating semiotics with communication theory. It says that "ML is the ability to understand and evaluate all the symbol systems of a society."


MEDIA LITERACY LINKS
(and non-link articles.)

Bowen, Wally. Defining media literacy. Summary of the harvard institute on media education. On-Line article.
This summary of the Harvard Institute on Media education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education includes a couple of definitions of media literacy, one from Canada: "Media literacy is the ability to understand and evaluate all the symbol systems of a society." The other definition comes from a gathering at the Aspen Institute and has it that ML is "the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and produce communications in a diversity of forms."
Six reasons are then offered for the importance of teaching about media: (1)Media dominate our political and cultural lives. (2)Almost all information beyond direct experience is mediated. (3)Media provide powerful models for values and behavior. (4)Media influence us without our being aware (McCluhan's "the environment is invisible.") (5)Media literacy can enhance our enjoyment of media. (6)ML can make a passive relationship active.
Point six is considered particualrly important, says Bowen, since citizens must reverse the flow of one-way information. This is true in politics, business, consumerism, all social endeavor needing energetic and informed citizen participants--trained in actively engaging the media.
The institute discussed how ML could be taught through existing critical skills curricula rather than being an add on. And, a list was devised outlining seven advantages to teaching ML:(1)Appreciation of and tolerance for complexity. (2)To make effective choices in a media-saturated environment. (3)Sensitivity to and respect for multiple points of view. (4)To skillfully construct and disseminate messages. (5)To be part of a valued, respected, functioning team and community. (6)To make effective use of family, community and cultural networks. (7)To set meaningful personal goals for the future. The institute participants also recognized that media literacy is not teaching "through" media, but rather it is teaching "about" media. They considered this an important distinction considering the computer-in-schools issue. Information delivery is not education in general or education about media in this case. Since students live in a media-saturated world, they must learn "about" media. For example, they need to know that television does not deliver programs to viewers, but rather delivers audiences to advertisers. If media consolidation continues, if a small number of companies is responsible for news, information and entertainment, then students need to know which companies are involved and what this proliferating concentration of media power will mean.

Briller, B. (Autumn,1990). Zooming in closer on the news audience. Television Quarterly, VolXXV, Number 1, pp.107-120.

Considine, D.M. (July-August 1995). Are we there yet? an update on the media literacy movement. Educational Technology (pp 32-43).
Considine begins with the importance of visual literacy, something as important as the ability to read and write in order "...to spot a stereotype, isolate a social cliche and distinguish fact from propaganda, analysis from banter and important news from coverage." He notes that media literacy is becoming more visible based on the increasing number of conferences, workshops, and forums. He claims that declining standards in journalism--print and electronic--, the race for ratings numbers, the feeding frenzy mentality displayed by the media, and the general nature of "infotainment," and a reversion to tabloidism and sensationalism have fostered a renewed interest in media literacy and some of the more apparent meida matters i.e., if we're getting crowd-pleasing pap from the media we must be missing out on coverage, portrayal and discussion of more important issues.
Media literacy should be addressed in schools since, among other reasons, it examines areas beyond the dominant television medium which are also of importance to young people--music, film, video games, advertising. And these areas all involve the issue of media violence, which is a prime element in media life. The author writers that violence is a quality of life issue that transcends just the schools, but violence in media might be affected by audience education, and media literacy bears directly on that matter. Teaching students to be critical viewers and thoughtful consumers of media messages is necessary in order for those students to be able to deal with vioence and all of the other media messages that we are all exposed to.
Considine mentions the lag in the U.S. in media literacy/media education, but he feels the situation is slowly being addressed via pre-service and in-service training....not exactly a tidal wave of media literacy/media education training, but an awareness and a start is in evidence. In addition, more resources, print and non-print, are becoming available to teachers (he supplies a resource list at the end of the article); more teacher autonomy evidenced by site-based management; and the delevelopment of support organizations such as the National Telemedia Council.
Considine concludes by reiterating the idea that most Americans now get most of their information from television and other mass media. This grounding is the heart of media literacy which contributes to an understanding of media resulting in numerous benefits as outlined above.

Full of sound and fury: is violence on television inflaming our children? (Spring, 1994). Tennessee Alumnus. On-line article.
Violence on television is a public concern, mainly now and then. In spite of the specter of government regulation, blocking device threats, and other means for limiting violent programming (including an age-based rating system for televised violence), not a great deal seems to happen to modify content.
The article quotes professors at the University of Tennesseee, Knoxville, as saying that violent programming affects some people under some circumstances, and since it is a consumer problem, regulation wouldn't work. Dr. greer Fox would rather see the problem handled at the community level--boycotts rather than legislation.
Among the iterated problems associated with television violence are the lack of emphasis placed on damage done to the lives of portrayed victims and their families and friends. Shown television violence usually ignores the effects on the quality of life in the depicted neighborhoods. There seem to be acts, but no consequences. Much programming aimed at children or viewed by children shows violence as cute or endearing. Children, like all people, become desensitived to violence through repeated viewings. The article says that parental influence can do much to balance or negate the effects of violent programming, but parents are often absent or not much concerned even if on the scene.
Television effects is a heavily researched area, says the article, and suggests that there must be something to the idea that television messages can have influence. Why else would individual advertisers spend millions of dollars to display their products and services. And here the articles notes a trend: advertising costs money, so products and services must be sold. To Whom? Well, currently the most heavily targeted demographic is women, 18-34. This demographic is seen as the heaviest spending in response to television advertising. And the members of this demographic are the least fond of violent programming. Therefore, the article says, violence on television has declined at least somewhat in response.
Violence still exists on televison in abundance, however, and the idea of children watching violent content in the absence of adults is troubling. Therefore, the article concludes, some reguilation may be in order thoug the matter is, obviously, wide open for and under considerable discussion. Perhaps an optimistic word for the teaching of media literacy which addresses violence in media would be appropriate. But the article does not deal with the consumer education side of the question.

Ferrington, Gary. What is media literacy. (1996). On-Line article.
Ferrington says that media literacy began in the 1970s as it was recognized that non-print media offer unique visual and aural languages. Understanding the text of a film, television program or advertisement was important to enlarging the notion of literacy.
But in the 1980s the back to basics movement hurt media education programs in the U.S. while such education in Europe, Canada and Australia was expanding.
Particularly in Europe, the trend was away from just encoding and decoding exercises toward an understanding of the place and role of media systems; issues of ownership and access--control of information.
At the same time media literacy remained an underfunded area despite a growing interest in media influences on children.
The author writes that the ubuquity of computer multimedia, cable television, video games and information networks has again fostered concerns over non-print forms of communicating. ferrington calls for the integration of media literacy skills--reading, writing and the symbolic visual and aural systems--across curricula.

Hobbs, Renee. Teaching with and about television: integrating media literacy concepts into management education. On-Line article.
Hobbs begins with the observation that film and television are so important to society that understanding them as influencing means of communication is beyond debate. She writes that the question of media reflecting society or shaping society has been moribund since the late 1980s because television is now so much a part of culture as to be inseparable from it.
She notes that the usual matters at issue are questions of the nature of media content, but, calling on Marshall McCluhan's line of inquiry regarding formal structures of media and individuals and societies,she mentions television as a form of communiation (underline "form")and its influence through visual biases. Using visual bias as a for instance, she says educators face some questions in using media in the classroom. In what ways is watching television similiar to or different from reading a newspaper or novel? Does the use of classroom video (in colleges especially where there is a trend) contribute to the decline of print? What does it mean when we use modern communication tools? What skills and knowledge must students have to use video as a means for reasoning, analyzing, expressing and communicating? Hobbs says the definition of literacy is constantly being debated, but if literacy consists of decoding, interpreting and creating messages, then perhaps reading a film or television show isn't that different from reading a newspaper or book.
One view maintained that images are symbolic codes, print and non-print. They are like langauages but rewuie congnitive skills unique to images. Critics said if unique skills were required to learn the new language, why did children understand television so easily with no formal instruction? The skills needed to understand television had to be different from those needed to learn language.
Hobbs and her colleagues at Babson College spent six years investigating this among members of the Pohot tribe in Kenya. She concludes that film and television ar easy to decode because of pre-existing visual and cognitive skills. The tribal members had no trouble understanding stories shown on television even when stories were edited and time fragmented (close-ups, flashbacks, parallel editing techniques).
She says the implications for teaching are enormous--video is a powerful educational tool anywhere. Video is easily decoded , uses pre-existing skills, but does not require or develop new skills. The downside is, again, less reliance on print literacy, a displacing of print literacy to whatever extent. However, television is still seen as an entertainment medium by most people, she says, and therefore students must be told to pay attention to instructional content (whether it be a news program or an instructional tape from one's employer). Students need to understand that learning from this entertainment vehicle requires energy,effort and thought. But, video does engage attention and does, or can, image the contemporary world, re-create the past, or visualize a projected future.
But, teaching with video isn't an all or nothing proposition. One may use no video in the classroom; one may use educational films and television relevant to subject; one may use commercial entertainment film and television occasionally when relevant to subject area; one may use educational and commercial entertainment film and television programming relevant to subject area.
In teaching about media, Hobbs says, it is important to impart critical skills, for analyzing and creating messages in print, aural, video, multimedia and other forms. She says that all English-speaking nations other than the United States are quite consistent in knowing what concepts are important in dealing with media. Hobbs says the central concepts are: Messages are constructions. Messages have legal, economic and political contexts and consequences. Individuals negotiate meanings in media texts.
Conclusions: Visual messages are not difficult to access and process, but ease of use means a passive approach by viewers. Two matters in the U.S. remain pertinent--regarding media literacy, what should we teach and how best might we teach it.

Key concepts for teaching television. On-Line article.
According to this article, the salient points about television are summed up this way. television is manufactured. Nothing you see is by accident.
Television is commercial. It's primary goal is to show a profit. Audiences are the product being bought and sold.
Television has social and political implications. Although television is not real, it can influence behavior. politics is now largely played out in prime time.
Television transmits values, the values of those producing the television products.
Television has its own langauge.
Audiences are active. Audiences must participate to some degree while watching television, even while engaged in other activities. Audiences are active and make meaning, although not necessarily the meaning or meanings intended by the television producer.
Television has its own aesthetic form. Pictures override sound.
Form and content are closely related in media experience and both must be understood and integrated. The above is a partial framework for addressing and teaching aspects of television.

Postman, Neil. Informing ourselves to death. On-Line. (Speech given before the German Informatics Society, 10/11/90, Stuttgart, Germany).
Posting off the title of one of his better known books, Amusing Ourselves to Death, Neil Postman notes that those in the professions create vocabularies of jargon to separate themselves from the common folk. Still, the occassional interloper gains access to the inner sanctums, and Postman says he is one of these when it comes to computers. He doesn't know much about computer technology but he knows what technology does to cultures. It gives and takes and not always equally. There are winners and losers (teachers, he says, may one day be made obsolete by television).
Computers have obviously been of great benefit in many areas of endeavor. But he wonders of what use they have been to the masses. The masses have been data-based and their lives intruded upon, so they may not be as enthusiastic about computers as the "winners" would want them to be (Winners are, of course, those closely involved with computers). Nor is there a conspiracy, winners versus losers or the average person, because the winners don't know the future any better than anybody else. But there is a danger to the computer even if the future is difficult to predict, says the author. He conducts experiments involving the dissemination of silly and far-fetched information (mostly concerning bogus university research projects) to make his point.
And his point is that the world is complex and tough to understand....nearly incomprehensible, hence anything will be believed because almost nothing really surprizes us anymore. We have fewer foundations for our belief systems. Information was formerly a friend but has now turned against us. The computer did not usher in the information age but it has continued and greatly expanded the proliferation and commodification of information. And since we no longer have reliable ways of grounding ourselves and our world(s) in solid concepts, Postman says we have trouble assimilating all the data around and about us because we don't know which of it is relevant to ourselves and our lives. The information provided by computers is largely useless in terms of organizing the world or ourselves where it counts in human terms because the computer cannot provide a moral framework, for instance.
Because computers are designed to handle huge amounts of information, they have an agenda and a message. True, Postman says, they are only machines, but because of what they do, they tell us that problems are solveable through the generation of more information. Postman laments the lack of energy put into other areas of knowledge because so much is channelled into computer technology. Like Clifford Stoll in Silicon Snake Oil Postman asks for more of the "human" and less of the machine and techology....a theme he hammers home in his most recent book, Technopoly.

Pungente, John, S.J. Defining media literacy: another point of view. On-line article.

Shepherd, Rick. (Oct/Nov., 1993). Why teach media literacy. Teach Magazine. On-line article.
Media literacy is an informed understanding of media, a desireable goal since culture expresses itself through media. Arguments about high and low culture have generally become irrelevant as aesthetic abstractions. Ownership, control, representation and ideology are the real elements of media culture and without "owning" them we cannot master that culture which is, in fact, our culture. The author notes that the process of globilization continues and so does the need for understanding media as protrayers and sometimes as abiters of "otherness."
Students may be easily motivated to study media from personal interest, and often they may know more about aspects of media than there teachers. And if they can be motivated, critical thinking and information management and evaluation skills can be taught over and above simply dealing with content. Students can be taught and encouraged to become aware of the time spent with media and how they use video games, television, films and print media. In terms of critical viewing students may be taught to ask, for example, what is in the frame...how is it constructed...what may have been left out. Group analysis and interactivities can be used profitably along with the creation and production of one's own media messages. Behind the frame questions must be addressed too, as indicated, meaning a look at who produces the media experience and for what purpose. Who profits? Who loses? Who decides? There is an emphacis on social, economic and political analysis. How do we as members of a society make meaning and absorb meaning and how do the media help drive the global economy that webs consumers together?
In an age of images citizens need to know and understand media because of their ubiquity...everything from television to U. of A. Final Four T-shirts to billboards to the Internet.

Stempel, G.H. and Hargrove, T. (Autumn, 1996) Mass media audience in a changing media environment. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 73/3, pp. 549-558.

Sylvester, Robert. The effects of electronic media on a developing brain. On-Line article.
After discussing how we apportion our time between the ages of one and 18, the author makes it apparent that we waste a lot of non-renewable time (on video games and television among other eletronic marvels)--mass media accounting for four hours out of the day in the specified age range. In relation to electronic outlets Sylwester says "Emotion drives attention which drives learning, memory and behavior..."
The human brain is the best organized three pounds of anything around, he says, and then he describes how it is organized and how it generally works. Genetics plays a larger role in brain development and capabilities than formerly thought; but motivation, experience and training can enhance genetic characteristics. So, brains adapt to the environments that they find themselves in.
Sylwester writes of short term memory suggesting that video games appeal to this form of memory through lack of explicit instructions in a complex milieu. Foreground information must be chunked into similarities/differences/patterns reflexively in order to move forward and not be penalized.
Our long term memory system depends on our success in putting together long sequences of "...related motor actions into automatic skills," and "...related objects/events into stories."
Media are important here as they relate to "conversations/jokes/songs/novels/films/TV/ballet/sports..." and etcetera. Young people must master these forms of storytelling, says Sylwester, and media can either help or hinder through their various techniques as dependent on their various natures.
The author discusses brain anatomy and writes of particular parts of the brain as important to our response systems. The mass media sometimes exploit the biology of response by triggering emotions, especially fear. Advertising attempts to ignite immediate, favorable reaction to a product.
Focus on the bizarre, violent and sexual also engages response systems. If these become the norm, then the media must escalate the visceral levels. But, if consumers of mass media product see these media elements as not the norm, then perhaps electronic experiences could lead to rational thought and appropriate responses.
Sylwester closes by saying that perhaps what is important is not what the electronic media bring to the developing mind, but rather what the developing mind brings to the electronic media.

Tyner, Kathleen. (1994) Access in a digital age. On-line article.
Maybe all of the power--or most of it--does not reside with those who originate information. leet's remember the consumer of information. the author writes that as we move from analog to a digital world, "access" wll be only a first step. Media literacy will encompass the next step, meaning "...the ability to access,analyze, evaluate and produce communication in a variety of forms..."
Digital communication means more and more information, with the Internet an example of a gargantuan flood of data. Mass media used to mean production by the few for the many. Now it mean production by the many for the many, on the Internet and elsewhere. Hence the usefulness of media literacy. Except that media literacy is not really taught in the United States, Tyner says, the only developed nation where this is true.
But in those places where it is taught there seems to be a consensus regarding the following: All media are constructs. They are not windows on the world or mirrors of society. Rather, they are carefully manufactured products designed for specific purposes. Media are not by definition real, but they have social, political and economic implications for policy and behavior. Thus media literacy education encourages active colloboration between audience and communication process and message in order to achieve an equal relationship between knowledge and power and bring about community involvement in the developing age of digital communication.

Walsh Bill. Mass media and cultural literacy. On-Line article.
Walsh essentially says that we should learn more about media effects and let them serve our purposes. Let's be active rather than passive.
Many elements derived from thethe popular media have become part of what Professor E.D. Hirsch in the 1980s christened Cultural Literacy in its up to date form.
This shouldn't be surprising given the purvasive nature of the media in daily life (a successful sitcom may garner forty million viewers on a given evening). There is no dispute about the importance of media to culture, Walsh says. Media literacy and cultural literacy therefore draw closer together. The danger resides in the audience becoming evermore the listeners rather than the doers.


JOURNALS.

From Now On: The Educational Technology Journal.

Journal of Computer Mediated Communication.
NOTE that vol. 1, No. 1 of this journal is entirely devoted to collaborative universities with such articles as "Space, ollaboration, and the Credible City: Academic Work in the Virtual University," "Use of Communication Resources in a Networked Collaborative Design Environment," "A Framework for Technology-mediated Inter-institutional Telelearning Relationship," and more.

LRC595A