Chicago "School" Sociologists and others:
Robert E. Park and Ernest Burgess (Introduction to Sociology, 1924)
Park, Burgess, and Roderick McKenzie (The City, 1925)

Fredrick Toinnes
Max Weber
Emile Durkheim
Karl Marx

NON-CRIMINAL SOCIETY                                      CRIMINAL SOCIETY
primary relationships                                                        secondary relationships
primary groups                                                                secondary groups & institutions
personal ties                                                                    impersonality
"gemeinshaft"                                                                   "gesellshaft" 
tradition                                                                           change

                                                                                        freedom
                                                                                        personal independence
                                                                                        individuality
                                                                                        anonymity
                                                                                        privacy
                                                                                        
                                                                                        breakdown of family, church, community
                                                                                        class division, alienation (personality), anomie
                                                                                        urbanization, industrialization, capitalism  
                                   

Data on England

population: England
        2.7 million in 1541
        5.2 million in 1651

population: London
        1340    40,000-50,000
        1600    200,000
        1650    350,000-400,000
        1700    575,000-600,000
        1750    650,000

Homicide indictments (per 100,000 population)

London
1660-1679    8.1
1680-1699    5.0
1700-1719    3.9
1720-1739    2.8    
1740-1759    2.0
1760-1779    1.7
1780-1802    0.9
  

Jury verdicts in property felonies, 1660-1800
         New" felonies:   22.2% guilty verdicts 

Virginia and Maryland Data

immigrants (1607-1700)
        85% indentured servants
        15% free men
        gender: 6 to 1, men to women (1607-1624)
        age range: 15-24

Tobacco production
    1616-             1,250 pounds
    1634-         500,000 pounds
    1669-    15,000,000 pounds
    1700-    28,000,000 pounds

    
African-American (slave) population of Virginia:

        1670: 2000 (mostly slave)
        1700: 8000 (slave)
        1750: 100,000 (slave)
 
        1715: 24% slave population
        1740: 40% slave population

 Maryland Slave to (white) Servant ratios:
        1680: 4 (white) servants to 1 slave
        1710: 5 slaves to 1 (white) servant

Virginia legislation regarding racism:
        1680. Whipping is proscribed for any Negro who assaults any "Christian"
        1691. No intermarriages between races, "for prevention of that abominable mixture and spurious issue."
        1705.  Permits dismembering of unruly slaves.  (really a slavery law rather than a race law)
        1705.  Slaves may not own private property.  (also a slavery law)
        1705.  Masters may no inflict humiliating whippings on indentured servants (presumably white)

Quotations about the emancipation of slaves and crime:

        Letter to Pennsylvania Journal, 1780:

" . . . we may fear [emancipation] will be a greater injury than all the service they [Negro slaves] have ever been to America; and that a new kind of bondage would be introduced, viz. White people reduced to perpetual fear and distress by the blacks. . . .  We could not otherwise than expect ill consequences from having a large number of free Negroes in the heart of this country, especially if freed upon a supposition that justice required it. . . .  We might expect the free [Negroes] and the bound would colleague together, connive at and conceal theft, murder, rapine, etc. etc.  We might readily expect a great increase of mulattos . . . we might look for perpetual contests and broils, and to hear a country ringing with their quarrels . . . ."

        Landon Carter (July 1776):  "if you free the slaves you must send them out of the country or they must steal for their support."  
                                                    "Slaves are devils and to make them otherwise than slaves will be to set devils free."

        Thomas Jefferson:  "We have the wolf by the ears and we can neither hold nor safely let him go."

New England Puritan Ideology:

John Winthrop. "A Model of Christian Charity" 1630.

Thirdly, when God gives a special commission He looks to have it strictly observed in every article; When He gave Saul a commission to destroy Amaleck, He indented with him upon certain articles, and because he failed in one of the least, and that upon a fair pretense, it lost him the kingdom, which should have been his reward, if he had observed his commission.

Thus stands the cause between God and us. We are entered into covenant with Him for this work. We have taken out a commission. The Lord hath given us leave to draw our own articles. We have professed to enterprise these and those accounts, upon these and those ends. We have hereupon besought Him of favor and blessing. Now if the Lord shall please to hear us, and bring us in peace to the place we desire, then hath He ratified this covenant and sealed our commission, and will expect a strict performance of the articles contained in it; but if we shall neglect the observation of these articles which are the ends we have propounded, and, dissembling with our God, shall fall to embrace this present world and prosecute our carnal intentions, seeking great things for ourselves and our posterity, the Lord will surely break out in wrath against us, and be revenged of such a people, and make us know the price of the breach of such a covenant.

Now the only way to avoid this shipwreck, and to provide for our posterity, is to follow the counsel of Micah, to do justly, to love mercy, to walk humbly with our God. For this end, we must be knit together, in this work, as one man. We must entertain each other in brotherly affection. We must be willing to abridge ourselves of our superfluities, for the supply of others’ necessities. We must uphold a familiar commerce together in all meekness, gentleness, patience and liberality. We must delight in each other; make others’ conditions our own; rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together, always having before our eyes our commission and community in the work, as members of the same body. So shall we keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace. The Lord will be our God, and delight to dwell among us, as His own people, and will command a blessing upon us in all our ways, so that we shall see much more of His wisdom, power, goodness and truth, than formerly we have been acquainted with. We shall find that the God of Israel is among us, when ten of us shall be able to resist a thousand of our enemies; when He shall make us a praise and glory that men shall say of succeeding plantations, "may the Lord make it like that of New England." For we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us. So that if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, and so cause Him to withdraw His present help from us, we shall be made a story and a byword through the world. We shall open the mouths of enemies to speak evil of the ways of God, and all professors for God's sake. We shall shame the faces of many of God's worthy servants, and cause their prayers to be turned into curses upon us till we be consumed out of the good land whither we are going.

Governor John Winthrop (on authority and obedience):

"A woman's choice makes a man her  husband; yet being so chosen, he is her lord, and she is subject to him, yet in a way of liberty, not of bondage; and a true wife accounts her subjection her honor and freedom, and would not think her condition safe and free, but in her subjection to her husband's authority. . . . his yoke is so easy and sweet . . . as a bride's adornments; and if thought forwardness or wantonness, she sake it off, at any time, she is at no rest in her spirit, until she take it up again; and whether he frowns, or rebukes, or smites her, she apprehends the sweetness of his love in all, and is refreshed, supported, and instructed by every such dispensation of his authority over her.  It you will be satisfied to enjoy such civil and lawful liberties, such as Christ allows you, then you will quietly and cheerfully submit to that authority which is set over you, in all the administrations of it, for your own good." 

New England Demographic Data

family migration:  9 of 10 immigrants came with or in a family
                           3 of 4 in a nuclear family

age of migrants:  fewer than one-quarter were in their 20s
                          mean age of husbands was 37; mean age of wives was 34

life expectancy:  (1st generation)--72 years
                          (2nd generation)--66 years

sex ratio--even

children per family: 8.3 live births and 7.2 surviving to adulthood

age at marriage: 19 for women; 27 for men

population doubled every 25 years

---------------------------

land distribution (Dedham, MA), first generation: 30 families divided 3,000 acres out of total of 128,000 in the town

----------------------------

persistence of sons in Andover, MA:

    1st-born generation     96% spent entire lives in Andover
    2nd-born generation    78% spent entire lives in Andover
    3rd-born generation    66% spent entire lives in Andover
    4th-born generation    43% spent entire lives in Andover

------------------------------

CRIME DATA: NEW ENGLAND

Mass. Assistants Court, 1630-1644

    Drunkenness 21.8%.
    Theft 11.0%.
    Contempt 6.8%
    Cursing & swearing 5.2%
    Fornication 4.8%
    Runaway servant 4.8%
    Lewedness 3.1%

    Assault 2%.
    Murder 1 case
    Rape 1 case
    Adultery 3 cases

    Sexual Crimes 38%  (of which Fornication was 95%)
    Violence 15%
    Property Offenses 13%  (larceny, robbery, burglary, receiving stolen goods)

    Fornication 28%
    Other sexual offenses 4%
    Breach of sabbath 15%
    Violence 15%
    Theft 7%
    Liquor violations 7%
    Profane speech 3%

Fornication in New Haven County, Connecticut, 1670-1789

Prosecutions of Married Persons                    Prosecutions of Single Persons
                                                                                                   Single Woman and Man                Single Woman alone            Single Man alone
1670-1679      5                                            1670-1679                             1                                                1                                        0
1680-1689      6                                            1680-1689                             4                                                0                                        0  
1690-1699    24                                            1690-1699                             4                                                9                                        3
1700-1709    23                                            1700-1709                             3                                                2                                        2        
1710-1719    23                                            1710-1719                             8                                                8                                        0  
1720-1729    74                                            1720-1729                           13                                              13                                        1 
1730-1739  107                                            1730-1739                             5                                              10                                        0 
1740-1749    44                                            1740-1749                             2                                              19                                        0
1750-1759    26                                            1750-1759                             0                                              22                                        0  
1760-1769    31                                            1760-1769                             0                                              34                                        0
1770-1779      3                                            1770-1779                             2                                              13                                        0
1780-1789      0                                            1780-1789                             1                                                2                                        0  

PENNSYLVANIA

William Penn on government:  "Government seems to me a part of religion itself, capable of kindness, goodness, and charity."

Death Sentences:

1682-1718       7
1720s             14
1730s             20
1740s             10
1750s             23
1760s             34
1770s             88
1780s           129
1790s             18

TABLE: Pennsylvania Morals Charges

TABLE: Pennsylvania Homicides (count) 

TABLE: Pennsylvania Homicide (rates), part I

TABLE: Pennsylvania Homicide (rates), part II

TABLE: Pennsylvania Homicide (rates), by historical eras

Figure: Outcomes of accusations against African-Americans in Pa., 1790-1800

Comparisons of crime data--Pennsylvania and England, homicide rates:

The highest (worst) rate in 18th-century Sussex (rural England) only four times out of ten exceeded the lowest (best) rate in (rural) Chester County--i.e. as bad as it got in England, it was better than the best in Chester, most of the time.

Philadelphia's rate in the 1720s was worse than London's from 1720 through 1802.

Pennsylvania and Philadelphia African-Americans--data

African-American percent of Pennsylvania population, 1780-1800:   2.8
African-American percent of all crimes prosecuted in Pennsylvania, 1780-1800:  2.4 to 2.7 percent

Property crime share of all African-American crime in Pennsylvania:  75 percent  (which is 2 and 1/2 times that of white percent)

Philadelphia: 
    68.1 percent of all Pennsylvania African-American crime is in Philadelphia city and County

    African-American property crime rate in Philadelphia in 1790-1793 is the same as white property crime rate
    African-American property crime rate in Philadelphia in  1794-1800 is six times higher than white property crime rate


Population:
    In 1800, 43.8 percent of all Pennsylvania African-Americans lived in Philadelphia
    The free black population of Pennsylvania increased 400 percent between 1783 and 1800

    900 or so Saint Dominguan slaves and ex-slaves arrived in Philadelphia after 1794, which increased the black population by one-quarter.

Justice statistics on Philadelphia and rural Pennsylvania (1794-1800):
    Philadelphia juries convicted 22 percent of whites
    Philadelphia juries convicted 77 percent of blacks
    Philadelphia courts prosecuted black accused to the end (either conviction or acquittal) in 97 percent of cases

    Rural Pennsylvania juries convicted less than 25 percent of African-Americans

Transportation, Industrialization, Urbanization and Immigration

       Thomas Jefferson on agrarian ideals and virtue (from his Notes on Virginia)  [republican philosophy]

"Those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God, if ever he had a chosen people, whose breasts he has made his peculiar deposit for substantial and genuine virtue.  It is the focus in which he keeps alive that sacred fire, which otherwise might escape from the face of the earth.  Corruption of morals in the mass of cultivators is a phenomenon of which no age nor nation has furnished an example.  . . . the proportion which the aggregate of the other classes of citizens bears in any state to that of its husbandmen, is the proportion of its unsound to its healthy parts. . . . While we have land to labour then, let us never wish to see our citizens occupied at a work-bench . . . let our work-shops remain in Europe.  . . . The mobs of great cities add just so much to the support of pure government as sores do to the strength of the human body."

         Economic Data

Cost of shipping wheat from Buffalo to N.Y.City is 3 times its value
Cost of shipping oats from Buffalo to N.Y. City is 12 times its values

Freight rates from Buffalo to N.Y. City:

1817. . . . . 19 cents per ton per mile
1830. . . . . . 2 cents per ton per mile

Steamboats and travel time on Mississippi River

travel time from New Orleans to Louisville, Century in 1820s dropped from six months to 8 days

Railroads

1830 . . . .      13 miles
1840. . . . .3,325 miles
1850. . . . .8,879 miles

 

Cities growth, 1830-1860
      all U.S. urban population grew 700 percent
        N.Y.C. grew 200,000 to 800,000
        Philadelphia grew 161,000 to 500,000
        Chicago grew 0 to 109,000

      Turnover in city population: Boston: 40 percent per year in 1850s

      Ratio of farm to city dwellers
            1800. . . . .15 to 1
            1830. . . . . 10.5 to 1
            1850. . . . . 5.5 to 1

        Immigration:
                    1815-1844:  800,000 to 1,000,0000
                      1845-1855: 1.8 million (to all North America)  

       Whiskey production:

    New Orleans
            1812 . . . . 10,000 gal delivered
            1824. . . .570,000 gal delivered

    Louisville
            1810. . . . . . 250,000 gal delivered
            1822. . . . . 2,250,00 gal

        Temperance movement:

        1831: 2,200 organizations and 170,000 members
        1834: 7,000 organizations and 1,250,000 members

        Sunday school movement:

        1830: 350,000 schools

Penology

Dr. Benjamin Rush on the difference between republican (American) penology and monarchical (British):

"Capital punishments are the natural offspring of monarchical governments.  Kings believe that they possess their crowns by a divine right; no wonder, therefore, they assume the divine power of taking away human life.  Kings consider their subjects their property; no wonder therefore, they shed their blood with as little emotion as men shed the blood of their sheep and cattle. But the principles of republican governments speak a very different language.  They teach the absurdity of the divine origin of kingly power.  They appreciate human life, and increase public and private obligations to preserve it.  They consider human sacrifices as no less offensive to the sovereignty of the people, than they are to the majesty of heaven.  The United States have adopted these peaceful and benevolent forms of government.  It become them therefore to adopt their mild and benevolent principles.  An execution in a republic is like a human sacrifice in religion."

        Synopsis of precepts of reformed penology:

"The efficacy of punishment depends upon its legitimacy.  And the greatest punishments must observe the strictest standards of justice and morality, must be least whimsical, lest irrational and irregular, least subjective. From punishment there must be no psychological escape into contempt for the punisher, into assertions of innocence, or protests against its cruelty. Nothing in the penalty's infliction can divert offenders from contemplating their own guilt.  Once convinced of the justice of their sentence and the benevolent intentions of their captors, the criminal could only surrender to the horrors of his own remorse.
    "The key for the social order therefore, was to represent the suffering of punishment in such a way that those who endured it and those who watched its infliction conserved their moral respect for those who inflicted it."